IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 27 Jan 2026
NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-1 (Introduction: How, When and Where)
Chapter 1, “How, When and Where,” examines how we study history by focusing on the importance of dates, the process of periodization, and the types of records preserved by the British administration.
1. The Importance of Dates
History is about changes that occur over time—finding out how things were in the past and how they have evolved.
- Focus of Dates: Dates become vital when history focuses on a particular set of events, such as when a ruler was crowned, a battle was fought, or a specific policy was introduced.
- Contextual Selection: No set of dates is “important” on its own; they become significant based on the stories and aspects of the past that historians choose to highlight.
2. Periodization of History
Historians divide the past into different periods to capture the central features of a particular time.
- James Mill’s Division: In 1817, James Mill divided Indian history into three periods: Hindu, Muslim, and British. He believed that all Asian societies were at a lower level of civilization than Europe and that British rule was necessary to civilize India.
- Problems with Mill’s View: Modern historians argue that it is incorrect to characterize an entire age only by the religion of the rulers, as various faiths and lives existed simultaneously.
- Alternative Periodization: Most historians now use the classification of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern.
3. What is Colonial?
The term colonial refers to the process where one country conquers another, leading to political, economic, social, and cultural changes. In the case of India, this involved the British establishing control over the economy and society, collecting revenue, and changing local values and customs.
4. Sources Used by Historians
To write the history of the last 250 years of Indian history, historians rely on several key sources:
- Official Records: The British believed that every instruction, plan, policy decision, agreement, and investigation had to be clearly written down.
- Archives and Museums: Record rooms were attached to all administrative institutions (like the collectorate or the law courts), and specialized institutions like the National Archives of India and the National Museum were established to preserve important records.
- Surveys: The British believed that a country had to be properly known before it could be effectively administered. They conducted detailed revenue surveys in villages, as well as botanical, zoological, archaeological, and forest surveys.
5. What Official Records Do Not Tell
While official records are detailed, they primarily reflect the views and interests of the officials who wrote them.
- Hidden Perspectives: These records often do not tell us what other people in the country felt or the reasons behind their actions.
- Alternative Sources: To understand the lives of ordinary people, historians look to diaries of people, accounts of pilgrims and travelers, autobiographies of important personalities, and popular booklets or newspapers.
How, When and Where
Calligraphists
Specialists who copied documents beautifully before printing became common.
Census
Operations held every 10 years to record detailed population data and castes.
Topography
Mapping the physical features of the land as part of early colonial surveys.
Class-8 History Chapter-1 PDF
Complete Study Notes: Introduction: How, When and Where
⚖️Indian Polity: The President – Pardoning Power (Art 72) & Emergency Powers
The President of India is the formal head of the executive, legislature, and judiciary. Among the various powers vested in the President by the Constitution, the Pardoning Power (Article 72) and Emergency Powers (Articles 352-360) are the most significant.
I. Pardoning Power of the President (Article 72)
Article 72 of the Constitution empowers the President to grant pardons and suspend, remit, or commute sentences in certain cases. This power is independent of the Judiciary; it is an executive power intended to correct potential judicial errors or provide relief based on humanitarian grounds.
1. Scope of the Power
The President can exercise these powers in cases where:
- The punishment is for an offence against a Union Law.
- The punishment is by a Military Court (Court Martial).
- The sentence is a Sentence of Death.
2. The Five Arms of Pardoning Power
- Pardon: It completely absolves the offender from all sentences, punishments, and disqualifications. The individual is placed in a position as if they had never committed the crime.
- Commutation: It denotes the substitution of one form of punishment for a lighter form.
- Example: Changing a death sentence to rigorous imprisonment.
- Remission: It implies reducing the period of the sentence without changing its character.
- Example: Reducing a sentence of 10 years of rigorous imprisonment to 5 years of rigorous imprisonment.
- Respite: It denotes awarding a lesser sentence than the one originally awarded due to some special fact.
- Example: The physical disability of a convict or the pregnancy of a woman offender.
- Reprieve: It implies a stay of the execution of a sentence (especially a death sentence) for a temporary period. This allows the convict time to seek a pardon or commutation.
3. Key Principles (Judicial Oversight)
- Binding Advice: The President does not exercise this power arbitrarily. He/She must act on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers.
- No Oral Hearing: The petitioner has no right to an oral hearing by the President.
- Limited Judicial Review: The Supreme Court (in Kehar Singh and Epuru Sudhakar cases) ruled that while the President’s decision is subjective, it can be challenged in court if it is found to be arbitrary, mala fide, or based on irrelevant considerations.
II. Emergency Powers of the President
The Constitution of India contains special provisions to deal with extraordinary situations. These are categorized into three types:
1. National Emergency (Article 352)
- Grounds: War, external aggression, or armed rebellion (the term “armed rebellion” was added by the 44th Amendment, replacing “internal disturbance”).
- Proclamation: The President can only proclaim a National Emergency after receiving a written recommendation from the Union Cabinet.
- Parliamentary Approval: It must be approved by both Houses of Parliament within one month by a special majority.
- Effects:
- The Federal structure turns Unitary (Union can give directions to states on any matter).
- The life of the Lok Sabha can be extended.
- Fundamental Rights: Under Article 359, the President can suspend the right to move courts for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights (except Articles 20 and 21).
2. President’s Rule / State Emergency (Article 356)
- Grounds: If the President, on receipt of a report from the Governor of a State or otherwise, is satisfied that the Government of the State cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.
- Also Article 365: If a state fails to comply with directions given by the Union.
- Parliamentary Approval: Must be approved within two months by a simple majority.
- Effects:
- The President dismisses the State Council of Ministers.
- The State Governor (on behalf of the President) administers the state.
- The Parliament passes the state’s bills and budget.
3. Financial Emergency (Article 360)
- Grounds: If the President is satisfied that a situation has arisen whereby the financial stability or credit of India or any part of its territory is threatened.
- Parliamentary Approval: Must be approved within two months by a simple majority.
- Effects:
- The Union can give directions to states to observe canons of financial propriety.
- The President can order the reduction of salaries of all classes of persons serving the Union or the State, including Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts.
- All money bills passed by the State Legislature can be reserved for the President’s consideration.
- Status: To date, a Financial Emergency has never been declared in India.
Summary Table
| Power Type | Constitutional Article | Key Authority | Purpose |
| Pardoning Power | Article 72 | Executive Relief | To correct judicial errors or show mercy. |
| National Emergency | Article 352 | Security of India | To protect against war or rebellion. |
| President’s Rule | Article 356 | State Stability | To address breakdown of constitutional machinery in states. |
| Financial Emergency | Article 360 | Economic Stability | To safeguard the financial credit of the nation. |
Pardoning & Emergency Powers
Commutation
Substitution of one form of punishment for a lighter form (e.g., Death sentence to Rigorous Imprisonment).
Remission
Reducing the period of the sentence without changing its character (e.g., 10 years to 5 years).
Respite & Reprieve
Lesser sentences for special facts (pregnancy/disability) or a temporary stay of execution.
“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (27-January-2026)
Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 27, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.
1. Employment Guarantee: A Game of Hide and Seek
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Issues relating to planning, mobilization of resources, growth, development and employment).
Context: A critical defense of the MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act) against recurring arguments for its replacement or dilution.
Key Points:
- Unfounded Criticism: The editorial counters the argument that MGNREGA is a “digging holes” scheme, pointing out that over 60% of works lead to durable assets related to natural resource management (NRM).
- Self-Targeting Mechanism: The scheme’s design—low wages and manual labor—ensures it remains a self-targeting safety net that attracts only those in desperate need, making it an efficient “automatic stabilizer.”
- Rural Distress Buffer: During economic shocks or agricultural failures, the scheme acts as a critical insurance mechanism, preventing mass distress migration and rural starvation.
- Asset Creation: Recent data shows significant contributions to irrigation, pond rejuvenation, and rural connectivity, which actually enhance private agricultural productivity for small and marginal farmers.
UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Poverty Alleviation,” “Rural Development,” and “Employment Policy.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Productive vs. Unproductive: The analysis argues that the “lack of substance” in replacement arguments stems from a failure to recognize the multiplier effect of rural spending on the wider economy.
- Labor Market Impact: By providing a wage floor, the scheme improves the bargaining power of rural labor, which is often cited as a grievance by large landowners but is a positive for social equity.
- Funding Constraints: The piece highlights that administrative hurdles—like delayed payments and technological barriers (ABPS)—are being used to “ration demand” rather than fulfilling the legal guarantee.
2. Sutlej-Yamuna Link (SYL): A Decades-long Deadlock
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Important aspects of governance; Federalism; Inter-state water disputes).
Context: A renewed push for meetings between the Chief Ministers of Punjab and Haryana to resolve the SYL canal water-sharing dispute.
Key Points:
- Historical Conflict: The dispute dates back to the reorganization of Punjab in 1966, with Haryana demanding its share of Ravi-Beas waters through the SYL canal.
- Punjab’s Stand: Punjab contends that it has no surplus water to share, citing declining groundwater levels and the “riparian principle.”
- Haryana’s Claim: Haryana argues that its southern districts are facing a severe water crisis and that the non-completion of the canal is a denial of its legal rights as per the 1981 agreement.
- Judicial Mandate: The Supreme Court has repeatedly directed the completion of the canal, while also urging the Centre to facilitate a negotiated settlement.
UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Inter-State Water Disputes,” “Federalism,” and “Water Resource Management.”
Detailed Analysis:
- The “Water-stressed” Reality: The editorial analyzes the shift in the debate from legal entitlements to the practical reality of water scarcity in both states due to climate change and intensive agriculture.
- Political Volatility: The issue remains highly sensitive in both states, making a purely political solution difficult without a neutral, data-driven assessment of current water availability.
3. Uproar Against UGC’s Campus Equity Regulations
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Education; Government policies and interventions).
Context: Growing protests and academic debate regarding the University Grants Commission’s (UGC) new regulations aimed at promoting equity and inclusion on campuses.
Key Points:
- Allegations of Bias: Critics argue that the new regulations could lead to “ideological policing” and a dilution of academic autonomy under the guise of equity.
- Standardization vs. Diversity: The uproar centers on whether a centralized set of rules can address the unique socio-cultural dynamics of diverse educational institutions across India.
- Faculty Concerns: There are fears that the regulations might interfere with recruitment processes and the “meritocratic” traditions of premier institutions.
- Student Welfare: Proponents argue the rules are necessary to curb systemic discrimination (caste, gender, and regional) that persists in higher education.
UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Education Policy,” “Social Justice,” and “Academic Freedom.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Implementation Challenges: The analysis highlights the gap between the “intent” of equity and the “form” of administrative mandates, which often lead to bureaucracy rather than genuine inclusion.
- Global Precedents: The piece compares the UGC’s move with “Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion” (DEI) debates in Western universities, noting the risk of polarization.
4. Far from Equilibrium: The Energetic Tax of Life
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Science & Technology; Current developments in Biology and Physics).
Context: A scientific feature exploring how living cells maintain states that are “far from equilibrium” to stay alive and functional.
Key Points:
- ATP Hydrolysis: Cells maintain the ratio of ATP to ADP at 10 billion times the equilibrium level to drive essential chemical reactions.
- Driven Chemical Cycles: To prevent “dying” at equilibrium, cells constantly pump energy into cycles, allowing for precise control and the ability to do work.
- The “Heat Tax”: Maintaining this imbalance generates an enormous amount of heat, which acts as a “tax” organisms pay for the versatility and control necessary for life.
- Evolutionary Trade-off: The calculations show that these driven cycles account for a large fraction of the heat organisms dump, an investment evolution has deemed worthy.
UPSC Relevance: Important for “Fundamental Science,” “Biotechnology,” and “Thermodynamics in Biological Systems.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Thermodynamics of Life: The feature explains that while equilibrium means stability, in biological terms, it means “dead,” as there is no net flow of energy to sustain life.
- Precision and Control: By staying far from equilibrium, biological systems can respond rapidly to environmental changes, a feat impossible for systems at rest.
5. Three Police Officers Get Death Penalty in Dhaka
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; India and its neighborhood).
Context: A significant judicial development in Bangladesh regarding the 2024 political violence.
Key Points:
- Accountability for Violence: A court in Dhaka has sentenced three police officers to death for their roles in the killing of protesters during the July-August 2024 uprising.
- Institutional Reckoning: The verdict is seen as a major step by the interim government toward addressing human rights violations by the previous regime’s security forces.
- Impact on Police Morale: The decision has sparked a debate in Bangladesh about the “orders from above” defense versus individual accountability for state-sponsored violence.
UPSC Relevance: Key for understanding “Neighborhood Dynamics,” “Human Rights and Justice,” and “Democratic Transitions in South Asia.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Transitional Justice: The editorial analyzes how the current administration is using the judiciary to delegitimize the previous government’s actions while trying to stabilize the country.
- Regional Implications: For India, stability and the rule of law in Bangladesh are critical to ensuring that the internal turmoil does not spill over the border or empower radical elements.
Editorial Analysis
JANUARY 27, 2026Over 60% Asset Creation linked to natural resources. Scheme acts as an Automatic Stabilizer against rural distress migration.
Cells maintain ATP ratios 10 Billion Times above equilibrium. Life is defined by constant energy flux; stability equals death.
Three police officers get Death Penalty for 2024 uprising violence. A major step for Transitional Justice in Bangladesh.
Duty & Justice
Mapping:
For today’s mapping session, we focus on Climatic Regions and Rainfall Distribution. This is a foundational topic for UPSC & PCS Exams, as it explains the spatial logic behind India’s agriculture, vegetation, and disaster patterns.
1. Major Rainfall Zones (Isohyet Mapping)
Rainfall in India is highly seasonal and unevenly distributed. On a map, these zones are defined by the amount of annual precipitation.
- Heavy Rainfall Zone (>200 cm):
- Western Ghats: The windward side (coastal Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Kerala).
- North-East India: The “Seven Sisters” states, particularly the Khasi Hills (Mawsynram and Cherrapunji).
- Moderate Rainfall Zone (100–200 cm):
- Eastern Plains: West Bengal, Bihar, and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.
- Coastal Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
- Low Rainfall Zone (50–100 cm):
- Central India: Parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and the Deccan Plateau.
- Northern Plains: Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh.
- Arid/Scanty Rainfall Zone (<50 cm):
- Western Rajasthan: The Thar Desert.
- Leh-Ladakh: The cold desert of the Trans-Himalayas.
- Rain-shadow Region: The interior parts of the Deccan Plateau (Marathwada and Rayalaseema).
2. Koeppen’s Climatic Classification of India
This is a high-level technical mapping requirement for the IAS Geography Optional and General Studies papers.
| Code | Climate Type | Mapping Region |
| Amw | Monsoon with short dry season | Western coast of India (South of Mumbai). |
| As | Monsoon with dry summer | Coromandel Coast (Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra). |
| Aw | Tropical Savanna | Most of the Peninsular plateau, south of the Tropic of Cancer. |
| BWhw | Hot Desert | Extreme Western Rajasthan (Thar Desert). |
| BShw | Semi-Arid Steppe | Rain-shadow zone of Western Ghats and parts of Haryana/Gujarat. |
| Cwg | Monsoon with dry winter | Most of the Ganga Plain and North-Central India. |
| Dfc | Cold Humid with sharp winter | Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. |
| E | Polar Type | Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, and Himachal Pradesh. |
3. Strategic Winds and Local Storms
Mapping the seasonal winds helps in understanding pre-monsoon and monsoon patterns.
- South-West Monsoon: Trace the “Arabian Sea Branch” (hits the West coast) and the “Bay of Bengal Branch” (hits the North-East and turns towards the Ganga plains).
- North-East Monsoon: These winds blow from the land to the sea, bringing winter rain primarily to the Tamil Nadu coast.
- Local Storms (Pre-Monsoon):
- Loo: Hot, dry winds in the Northern Plains (May/June).
- Mango Showers: Karnataka and Kerala (helps in ripening mangoes).
- Kalbaisakhi: Violent thunderstorms in West Bengal and Assam.
Summary Mapping Checklist
| Feature | Mapping Highlight | Key Location |
| Wettest Place | Mawsynram | East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya |
| Driest Place | Jaisalmer / Leh | Rajasthan / Ladakh |
| Winter Rainfall Hub | Coromandel Coast | Tamil Nadu |
| Monsoon Gateway | Malabar Coast | Kerala |
Mapping Brief
CLIMATIC REGIONS & RAINFALLPrimary codes include Amw (Monsoon/Short Dry) on the West Coast, As (Dry Summer) on the Coromandel Coast, and Cwg across the Ganga Plains.
The SW Monsoon splits into Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal branches. The North-East Monsoon provides crucial winter precipitation to Tamil Nadu.
The Interior Deccan (Marathwada/Rayalaseema) receives low rainfall (50-100cm) due to the leeward position of the Ghats.