NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-9 (The Making of Regional Cultures)

Chapter 9, “The Making of Regional Cultures,” describes how regional identities grew through the intermixing of local traditions with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent, shaping unique languages, art forms, and religious practices.

1. Language and Region: Malayalam

The connection between a language and its region is a primary way we describe people.

• The Cheras: The kingdom of Mahodayapuram, established in the ninth century in present-day Kerala, introduced the Malayalam language and script in its inscriptions.
• Intermixing: While using a regional language, the Cheras also drew from Sanskritic traditions. The first literary works in Malayalam (12th century) were indebted to Sanskrit.
• Manipravalam: A 14th-century text, the Lilatilakam, was written in Manipravalam—literally “diamonds and corals”—referring to the two languages, Sanskrit and the regional language.

2. Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult

In other regions, regional cultures grew around religious traditions.

• The Cult of Jagannatha: At Puri, Orissa, the local deity became identified with Vishnu. To this day, the local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity.
• Political Patronage: In the 12th century, King Anantavarman of the Ganga dynasty built a temple for Jagannatha. Later, King Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed himself the “deputy” of God.
• Conquest: As the temple became a center of pilgrimage, its social and political importance grew. Conquerors like the Mughals, Marathas, and the English East India Company tried to control the temple to make their rule acceptable to local people.

3. The Rajput Tradition of Heroism

In the 19th century, the British called the region of present-day Rajasthan “Rajputana”.

• Heroic Ideals: These were often linked to the Rajputs, who fought valiantly to choose death on the battlefield rather than face defeat.
• Minstrels: Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs performed by minstrels. These memories were preserved to inspire others to follow their example.
• Sati: Women were also part of these heroic stories, sometimes following their heroic husbands into the afterlife through the practice of sati, or self-immolation on the funeral pyre.

4. Beyond Frontiers: The Story of Kathak

Different regions developed unique dance forms that often had religious roots.

• Origins: Kathak began as a caste of storytellers (kathaks) in temples of North India who performed with gestures and songs.
• Evolution: With the spread of the Bhakti movement, Kathak evolved into a distinct mode of dance, incorporating stories of Radha and Krishna.
• Patronage: Under the Mughal emperors, it was performed in court and acquired its present features—rapid footwork and elaborate costumes. It flourished under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh.
• Classical Status: Though viewed with disfavor by British administrators, it survived and was recognized as one of the six “classical” forms of Indian dance.

5. Painting for Patrons: Miniatures

Another regional tradition was that of miniature painting—small-sized paintings generally done in water color on cloth or paper.

• Mughal Influence: Mughal emperors patronized highly skilled painters who illustrated manuscripts containing historical accounts and poetry.
• Regional Styles: With the decline of the Mughal Empire, painters moved to regional courts like the Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan. They developed distinct styles, portraying themes from mythology and poetry.
• Basohli and Kangra: In the Himalayan foothills, a bold style called Basohli developed. Later, the Kangra school of painting, inspired by Vaishnavite traditions, emerged with a style characterized by soft colors and lyrical treatment of themes.

6. A Closer Look: Bengal

The development of Bengali shows a complex intermixing of languages.

• Language: While Bengali is derived from Sanskrit, it passed through several stages of evolution. A large body of non-Sanskritic vocabulary (from Persian, European, and tribal languages) became part of modern Bengali.
• Literature: Early Bengali literature includes translations of Sanskrit epics and the “Nath” literature, such as the songs of Maynamati and Gopi Chandra.
• Pirs and Temples: From the 16th century, people migrated to south-eastern Bengal. Community leaders, often called pirs (spiritual guides), provided stability. Many modest brick and terracotta temples were built in Bengal, often by individuals or groups to demonstrate their power and piety.
• Fish as Food: Regional cultures are often shaped by dietary habits. Because Bengal is a riverine plain, fish and rice became the staple diet. Interestingly, Brahmanas in Bengal were permitted to eat certain varieties of fish, a practice reflected in the terracotta plaques on temple walls.

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⚖️Indian Polity: The President of India (Articles 52–62)

The President is the Executive Head of the Union. While the Prime Minister is the real head (De Facto), the President is the formal or titular head (De Jure).

Article 52: The President of India

• This article establishes the office. It simply states: “There shall be a President of India.”

Article 53: Executive Power of the Union

• All executive powers of the Union are vested in the President.
• These powers are exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him (Council of Ministers).
• He is also the Supreme Commander of the Defense Forces of India.

Note: President is the Nominal Executive (De Jure head), while the Prime Minister is the Real Executive (De Facto head).

Article 54: Election of the President

The President is not elected directly by the people but by the members of an Electoral College.

Members of the Electoral College:

1. Elected members of both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha).
2. Elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States (Vidhan Sabha).
3. Elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the Union Territories of Delhi, Puducherry, and Jammu & Kashmir (added by the 70th Amendment Act).

Crucial Note: Nominated members of Parliament and State Assemblies do not participate in the election.

Article 55: Manner of Election

The election is held through the system of Proportional Representation by means of the Single Transferable Vote (STV). The voting is conducted by Secret Ballot.

This ensures that the President represents the collective will of both the Union and the States.

• Value of Vote of an MLA: $\text{Value}=\frac{\text{Total Population of State}}{\text{Total Elected Members of State Legislative Assembly}}\times \frac{1}{1000}$
• Value of Vote of an MP: $\text{Value}=\frac{\text{Total Value of Votes of all MLAs of all States}}{\text{Total Elected Members of Parliament}}$

Article 56: Term of Office

• The President holds office for a term of 5 years from the date he enters the office.
• He can resign by writing to the Vice-President.
• He can be removed from office by Impeachment for the “Violation of the Constitution.”

Article 57: Eligibility for Re-election

• A person who holds, or has held, the office of President is eligible for re-election to that office for any number of terms. (In contrast, the US President is limited to two terms).

Article 58: Qualifications for Election

To be eligible for election as President, a person must:

1. Be a citizen of India.
2. Have completed 35 years of age.
3. Be qualified for election as a member of the Lok Sabha.
4. Not hold any Office of Profit under the Union Government, any State Government, or any local/public authority.

Article 59: Conditions of President’s Office

• He should not be a member of either House of Parliament or a State Legislature. If such a person is elected, he is deemed to have vacated that seat on the date he enters the President’s office.
• His emoluments and allowances cannot be diminished during his term of office.
• He is entitled, without payment of rent, to the use of his official residence (Rashtrapati Bhavan).

Article 60: Oath or Affirmation

• The oath is administered by the Chief Justice of India (CJI). In their absence, the senior-most Judge of the Supreme Court.
• The President swears to “preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law.”

Article 61: Procedure for Impeachment

This is the process for removing the President.

• Grounds: Only for the “Violation of the Constitution.”
• Procedure: 1. A 14-day notice is given.2. Charges must be signed by 1/4th of the members of the House that framed the charges.3. The resolution must be passed by a majority of 2/3rd of the total membership of that House.4. The other House investigates; if it also passes the resolution by a 2/3rd majority, the President stands removed.

Article 62: Filling Vacancies

• An election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term must be completed before the term expires.
• If the vacancy occurs due to death, resignation, or removal, the election must be held within 6 months.
• In the interval, the Vice-President acts as the President.

Quick Shortcut Table for Revision

Article	Keyword	Memory Trick
52	Post	Existence of the Office.
54	Election	Who votes (Electoral College).
56	Tenure	5-Year Term.
58	Qualification	35 years + Lok Sabha eligibility.
60	Oath	Administered by CJI.
61	Impeachment	Removal Process (2/3rd Majority).

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