IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 22 Jan 2026
NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-7 (Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities)
This chapter, “Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities,” explores the lives of societies that existed outside the varna-based social order and how they interacted with settled states during the medieval period.
1. Beyond Big Cities: Tribal Societies
Many societies in the subcontinent did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas.
- Definition: These societies are often called tribes.
- Social Structure: Members were united by kinship bonds. They generally did not have numerous unequal classes.
- Livelihood: Many tribes obtained their livelihood from agriculture. Others were hunter-gatherers or herders. They often made full use of the natural resources of the area where they lived.
- Territory: Tribes often controlled land and pastures jointly, dividing these among households according to their own rules.
- Interaction: There was a constant interaction—both conflict and dependence—between tribal and caste-based societies. This relationship gradually caused both types of societies to change.
2. Location of Tribal People
Tribal communities were found in almost every region of the subcontinent.
- Powerful Tribes: In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was influential in the 13th and 14th centuries; later, the Gakkhars became more important.
- Multan and Sind: The Langahs and Arghuns dominated extensive regions.
- North-West: The Balochis were a large and powerful tribe divided into smaller clans.
- North-East: The Nagas, Ahoms, and many others lived in these distant areas.
- Central and Western India: The Bhils were spread across these regions. The Gonds were found in great numbers across present-day Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.
3. How Nomads and Mobile People Lived
Nomadic pastoralists moved over long distances with their animals.
- Exchange: They lived on milk and other pastoral products. They exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with settled agriculturists for grain, cloth, utensils, and other products.
- The Banjaras: They were the most important trader-nomads. Their caravan was called a tanda. Sultan Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras to transport grain to the city markets, and Emperor Jahangir recorded that they carried grain on their bullocks from different areas to sell in towns.
- Itinerant Groups: Other groups, such as craftspersons and entertainers, also traveled from village to village performing their crafts or shows.
4. Changing Society: New Castes and Hierarchies
As the economy and the needs of society grew, people with new skills were required.
- Jatis: Smaller castes, or jatis, emerged within varnas. For example, new castes appeared among the Brahmanas.
- Specialized Groups: Many tribes and social groups were taken into caste-based society and given the status of jatis. Specialized artisans—smiths, carpenters, and masons—were also recognized as separate jatis by the Brahmanas.
- Rajput Clans: Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans (such as Hunas, Chandelas, and Chalukyas) became powerful. They gradually replaced older rulers and used their wealth to create powerful states.
5. A Closer Look: The Gonds and Ahoms
The text provides detailed histories of two major tribal groups that established states.
The Gonds
- Habitat: They lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana. They practiced shifting cultivation.
- Administration: The large Gond kingdom was divided into garhs. Each garh was controlled by a particular Gond clan. This was further divided into units of 84 villages called chaurasi.
- Social Change: The emergence of large states changed the nature of Gond society. Their basically equal society gradually became divided into unequal social classes. Brahmanas received land grants from Gond rajas and became more influential.
The Ahoms
- Migration: The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in the 13th century.
- State Building: They created a new state by suppressing the older political system of the bhuiyans (landlords). They used firearms as early as the 1530s.
- Forced Labour: The Ahom state depended upon forced labour. Those forced to work for the state were known as paiks.
- Clans: Ahom society was divided into clans or khels. A khel often controlled several villages.
- Religion: Originally, the Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods, but during the 18th century, Hinduism became the predominant religion. However, the Ahom kings did not completely give up their traditional beliefs after adopting Hinduism.
🏹 Tribes, Nomads & Communities
Class-7 History Chapter-7 PDF
Complete Study Notes: Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities
⚖️Indian Polity: Part IV: Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 36–51)
The DPSPs are the “Instrument of Instructions” to the State. They are non-justiciable (cannot be enforced in court) but are fundamental in the governance of the country.
Article 36: Definition of “State”
This article ensures consistency across the Constitution. It states that unless the context requires otherwise, the term “State” in Part IV has the same meaning as it does in Article 12 (Part III). It includes the Union Government, State Governments, Parliament, State Legislatures, and all local or other authorities.
Article 37: Nature and Application
This article defines the legal character of DPSPs. It declares two fundamental points:
- These principles are not enforceable by any court (Non-justiciable).
- They are, nevertheless, fundamental in the governance of the country, and it is the moral duty of the State to apply them when making laws.
The Socialistic & Welfare Directives:
Article 38: Establishing a Social Order
- 38(1): The State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order where Justice (Social, Economic, and Political) informs all institutions of national life.
- 38(2): Added by the 44th Amendment (1978), it directs the State to minimize inequalities in income, status, facilities, and opportunities.
Article 39: Principles of Policy
The State shall direct its policy toward securing:
- (a) Right to an adequate means of livelihood for all citizens.
- (b) Ownership and control of material resources are distributed to best subserve the common good.
- (c) Operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth.
- (d) Equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
- (e) Protection of the health of workers and children against abuse.
- (f) Children are given opportunities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity (Added by 42nd Amendment).
Article 39A: Equal Justice and Free Legal Aid
Inserted by the 42nd Amendment (1976), it mandates the State to provide free legal aid by suitable legislation or schemes to ensure that no citizen is denied justice due to economic or other disabilities.
Article 41: Right to Work and Assistance
The State shall, within its economic limits, make provisions for securing the Right to work, to education, and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness, and disablement.
Article 42: Humane Work and Maternity Relief
The State shall make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for providing maternity relief to women employees.
Article 43: Living Wage and Cottage Industries
The State shall endeavor to secure a living wage (which covers not just survival but education and health) and a decent standard of life for all workers. It also promotes cottage industries in rural areas.
The Gandhian & Social Reform Directives:
Article 40: Organization of Village Panchayats
The State shall take steps to organize Village Panchayats and endow them with such powers as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government.
Article 43B: Co-operative Societies
Added by the 97th Amendment (2011), it directs the State to promote the voluntary formation, autonomous functioning, and professional management of co-operative societies.
Article 46: Interests of SCs and STs
The State shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and other weaker sections, protecting them from social injustice.
Article 47: Nutrition, Standard of Living, and Prohibition
The State shall regard the raising of the level of nutrition and public health as its primary duty. Specifically, it shall endeavor to bring about the prohibition of intoxicating drinks and drugs (except for medicinal purposes).
Article 48: Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
The State shall organize agriculture and animal husbandry on modern, scientific lines and shall take steps for preserving and improving breeds, and prohibiting the slaughter of cows, calves, and other milch cattle.
The Liberal-Intellectual Directives:
Article 44: Uniform Civil Code
The State shall endeavor to secure for the citizens a Uniform Civil Code throughout the territory of India, aimed at replacing personal laws with a common set of civil laws for all religions.
Article 45: Early Childhood Care
Amended by the 86th Amendment (2002), it mandates the State to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years.
Article 48A: Environment and Wildlife
Added by the 42nd Amendment (1976), it mandates the State to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
Article 49: Protection of Monuments
It is the obligation of the State to protect every monument or place of national importance from destruction, disfigurement, or export.
Article 50: Separation of Judiciary
The State shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services of the State to ensure judicial independence.
Article 51: International Peace
The State shall endeavor to:
- Promote international peace and security.
- Maintain honorable relations between nations.
- Foster respect for international law.
- Encourage settlement of disputes by arbitration.
Quick Comparison: FR vs. DPSP
| Feature | Fundamental Rights (Part III) | DPSP (Part IV) |
| Nature | Negative (State cannot do) | Positive (State should do) |
| Justiciability | Enforceable in Court | Not enforceable in Court |
| Aim | Political Democracy | Social & Economic Democracy |
| Suspension | Can be suspended (except 20, 21) | Never suspended; only implemented |
⚡ 5-Minute DPSP Memorization Table
This table uses the Keyword Method. If you remember the keyword, the entire article follows.
| Article | Keyword | Short Logic / Memory Trick |
| 36 | Definition | Same as Art 12 (Definition of State). |
| 37 | Nature | Non-justiciable but “Fundamental” for laws. |
| 38 | Welfare | Secure a Social Order (Social, Economic, Political). |
| 39 | Livelihood | Equal pay, wealth distribution, and resources. |
| 39A | Legal Aid | A = Aid (Free legal help for the poor). |
| 40 | Panchayat | Think of Gandhi’s vision for villages. |
| 41 | Work/Edu | Right to Work, Education, and Public Assistance. |
| 42 | Maternity | Human work conditions + Maternity relief. |
| 43 | Living Wage | Minimum pay to live a decent life. |
| 43A | Management | Workers’ participation in factory management. |
| 43B | Co-ops | B = Business (Co-operative societies). |
| 44 | Uniformity | 4 & 4 are uniform (Uniform Civil Code). |
| 45 | Infants | Education for kids under 6 (Pre-school). |
| 46 | SC / ST | Promotion of weaker sections. |
| 47 | Health | Nutrition up + Alcohol/Drugs down (Prohibition). |
| 48 | Agriculture | Scientific farming + No Cow Slaughter. |
| 48A | Environment | A = Air/Animals (Forests & Wildlife). |
| 49 | Monuments | Protect historical sites (National Importance). |
| 50 | Separation | 50-50 split (Judiciary vs. Executive). |
| 51 | Peace | Final goal: International Peace & Security. |
💡 The “Ideology” Grouping (Exam Hack)
In exams, they often ask: “Which of these is a Gandhian Principle?”
- Socialistic (Welfare): 38, 39, 39A, 41, 42, 43, 43A, 47.
- Gandhian (Rural/Moral): 40, 43, 43B, 46, 47, 48.
- Liberal (Modern): 44, 45, 48, 48A, 49, 50, 51.
🛠️ Implementation Examples
- Art 39A → Fulfilled by the Legal Services Authorities Act (NALSA).
- Art 40 → Resulted in Panchayati Raj (73rd Amendment).
- Art 44 → Currently implemented in Goa only.
- Art 45 → Led to Right to Education (86th Amendment).
- Art 47 → Basis for Liquor Bans in Bihar/Gujarat.
📜 Directive Principles (Part IV)
DPSP: Positive/Social-Economic Democracy/Non-Justiciable.
🧠 5-Minute Memorization Table
| Art. | Keyword | Memory Trick |
|---|---|---|
| 39A | Legal Aid | A = Aid (Help for the poor) |
| 40 | Panchayat | Gandhi’s Village vision |
| 43B | Co-ops | B = Business (Co-operative) |
| 44 | Uniformity | 4 & 4 are Uniform (UCC) |
| 45 | Infants | Education for under 6 years |
| 48A | Environment | A = Air/Animals |
| 50 | Separation | 50-50 split (Judiciary/Exec) |
| 51 | Peace | Final goal: World Peace |
“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (22-January-2026)
Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 22, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.
1. Discretion is Not Unregulated Power: SC on SIR
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Electoral Reforms; Constitutional Bodies; Important aspects of governance).
Context: The Supreme Court’s observations on the Election Commission’s (EC) “Special Intensive Revision” (SIR) of electoral rolls and the limits of discretionary power.
Key Points:
- Judicial Oversight: The Court clarified that while the EC has “widest discretions” under Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, this does not grant “unregulated power” to deviate from established norms.
- Procedural Sanctity: The Bench emphasized that deviations from the Registration of Electors Rules, 1960, must be backed by reasons that are “fair, transparent, and recorded.”
- The “Stress and Strain” Factor: The Court highlighted the “extreme stress” caused to millions of citizens—including elderly and disabled persons—who were forced into physical hearings to prove their citizenship.
- Voter Protection: The SC warned that any revision that forces genuine voters to re-apply as “fresh” voters (Form 6) is a violation of the right to franchise.
UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Powers and Functions of the ECI,” “Judicial Review of Administrative Actions,” and “Electoral Integrity.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Doctrine of Reasonableness: The editorial notes that the SC has invoked the principle that all administrative discretion must be exercised reasonably and in public interest.
- Systemic Burden: The EC’s contention that it is “unshackled” from normal procedures during an SIR was rejected, reinforcing that the “rule of law” prevails over “rule of discretion.”
- Impact of Mass Deletions: With nearly 6.5 crore names removed, the Court’s intervention seeks to prevent a “civil death” for voters who have been voting for decades.
2. Trump’s Greenland Ultimatum: A New Colonialism?
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of policies and politics of developed countries).
Context: U.S. President Donald Trump’s demand for “negotiations” on Greenland and the imposition of heavy tariffs on Denmark.
Key Points:
- Economic Coercion: The U.S. has imposed a 25% tariff on Danish goods, including LEGO and pharmaceuticals, to force a sale of the autonomous territory.
- Arctic Strategy: The demand is driven by the need for “strategic depth” and access to vast untapped mineral resources, including rare earth elements essential for high-tech industries.
- The “No Force” Claim: Trump stated he would not use military force but emphasized that “economic power” would be used to correct historical “imbalances.”
- European Response: Denmark and the EU have termed the demand “absurd,” leading to a diplomatic standoff within the NATO alliance.
UPSC Relevance: Critical for “Arctic Council Geopolitics,” “U.S. Foreign Policy,” and “Global Resource Security.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Monroe Doctrine Reborn: This is viewed as an extension of the “Donroe Doctrine,” where the U.S. asserts exclusive influence over the Western Hemisphere, including the Arctic.
- Impact on Greenlanders: The 57,000 residents of Greenland have rejected the proposal, asserting their right to self-determination under international law.
- Shift in Global Order: The editorial suggests this marks a transition from a rules-based order to a “transactional order” where sovereignty is treated as a tradeable asset.
3. Police Media Briefings: Protecting the Accused
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Important aspects of governance; Judiciary; Fundamental Rights).
Context: The Supreme Court’s directive to States and Union Territories to frame a comprehensive policy on police media briefings within three months.
Key Points:
- Presumption of Innocence: The SC observed that premature media briefings by police often result in “media trials” that violate the accused’s right to a fair trial.
- Privacy and Dignity: Publicly parading accused persons or revealing sensitive investigation details infringes upon Article 21 (Right to Life and Liberty).
- Sensitization of Forces: The policy must include training for police officers on what information can be shared without compromising the investigation or the rights of the victim.
- Victim Protection: Special emphasis was placed on protecting the identities of victims in cases of sexual offences and those involving minors.
UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Police Reforms,” “Rights of the Accused,” and “Media Ethics.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Regulating “Breaking News”: The editorial argues that the quest for “police glory” in the media often leads to a miscarriage of justice.
- Balanced Disclosure: The proposed policy aims to balance the “public’s right to know” with the “accused’s right to a fair trial.”
- Accountability: State DGPs will be held responsible for any unauthorized leaks or briefings that jeopardize judicial proceedings.
4. Sinking Deltas: An Environmental Crisis
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Environment; Conservation; Disaster Management).
Context: A recent study in Nature identifying major Indian deltas as being at high risk due to unsustainable groundwater extraction and urbanisation.
Key Points:
- Subsidence Rates: Human interventions have accelerated the sinking of deltas, transforming a gradual geological process into an urgent crisis.
- Vulnerable Regions: The Ganges-Brahmaputra and Cauvery deltas are particularly affected by groundwater depletion, while the Brahmani delta suffers from rapid urbanisation.
- The “Unprepared Diver”: The Ganges-Brahmaputra delta has shifted from a “latent threat” to an “unprepared diver,” meaning risks have increased while institutional capacity has stagnated.
- Impact on Ports: Sinking deltas threaten critical infrastructure, including transport networks and ports, which are vital for India’s trade.
UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Climate Change Adaptation,” “Water Resource Management,” and “Coastal Erosion.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Institutional Lag: The study highlights that despite the high population density in these regions, policy responses remain reactive rather than proactive.
- Compaction and Tectonics: While natural compaction occurs, the extraction of water and hydrocarbons removes the “pore pressure” that supports the land, leading to rapid sinking.
- Food Security: As deltas sink, saline water intrusion ruins agricultural land, leading to migration and resource competition.
5. Data Point: Curbs on Chinese FDI
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Mobilization of resources; FDI Policy).
Context: India’s consideration of scrapping certain restrictions on Chinese Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and the potential economic fallout.
Key Points:
- Post-Galwan Policy: Since 2020, Press Note 3 has required government approval for FDI from countries sharing a land border with India.
- The Manufacturing Gap: Despite the “China Plus One” strategy, Indian manufacturers still rely heavily on Chinese components, leading to calls for eased investment norms to boost local manufacturing.
- Chinese Reluctance: The analysis questions whether China will want to invest given the “trust deficit” and India’s recent history of tax raids on Chinese tech firms.
- Trade Imbalance: India’s trade deficit with China remains a structural concern, and FDI is seen as a way to convert trade into local production.
UPSC Relevance: Key for “India-China Economic Relations,” “Make in India,” and “Foreign Investment Trends.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Security vs. Growth: The editorial analyzes the tension between national security (avoiding Chinese influence in critical sectors) and the need for capital and technology in electronics and EVs.
- Strategic Leverage: By easing FDI, India seeks to integrate into global value chains that are currently dominated by Chinese firms.
- Reciprocity: Any easing of norms will likely be calibrated and sectoral, rather than a blanket reversal of the 2020 policy.
Editorial Analysis
Jan 22, 2026Mapping:
For today’s mapping session, we will focus on India’s Major Valley Systems and Canyons. Valleys are high-yield topics for UPSC & PCS Exams as they combine physical geography with climate and human settlement patterns.
1. Himalayan Valley Systems
These valleys are formed by tectonic activity and glacial erosion, often serving as critical agricultural and cultural hubs.
- Kashmir Valley (J&K): Located between the Greater Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. It is famous for Karewa formations, which are essential for saffron cultivation.
- Kullu Valley (Himachal Pradesh): Known as the “Valley of Gods,” it is located between the Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges.
- Spiti Valley (Himachal Pradesh): A high-altitude cold desert valley. It is a key area for Buddhist culture and high-altitude trekking mapping.
- Doon Valley (Uttarakhand): A longitudinal valley (Dun) situated between the Lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks. Dehradun is located here.
- Yumthang Valley (Sikkim): Often called the “Valley of Flowers of the East,” located at a very high altitude near the Tibetan border.
2. Peninsular and Southern Valleys
These valleys are generally older and are often characterized by dense tropical forests or unique river erosion.
| Valley Name | State | Significance |
| Silent Valley | Kerala | Located in the Nilgiri Hills; famous for its rare biodiversity and tropical evergreen forests. |
| Araku Valley | Andhra Pradesh | Located in the Eastern Ghats; known for coffee plantations and tribal culture. |
| Kambam Valley | Tamil Nadu | A fertile valley located between the Theni hills and the Western Ghats. |
| Dzukou Valley | Nagaland/Manipur | Famous for its seasonal flowers and unique bamboo species at high altitudes. |
3. The “Grand Canyon” of India: Gandikota
- Location: Andhra Pradesh (Kadapa district).
- Formation: Carved by the Pennar River through the Erramala hills.
- Mapping Point: On a physical map, locate this in the eastern part of the Deccan Plateau. It is a prime example of a gorge/canyon in the peninsular region.
4. Strategic Gorges and Canyons
- Indus Gorge: Where the Indus river cuts through the Himalayas near Gilgit; one of the deepest in the world.
- Brahmaputra (Dihang) Gorge: The point where the river enters India, cutting through the easternmost Himalayas.
- Satluj Gorge: Located at Shipki La, where the river enters India from Tibet.
Summary Mapping Checklist
| Feature Type | Mapping Highlight | Key Location |
| Saffron Hub | Kashmir Valley | Between Pir Panjal and Himadri |
| Longitudinal Valley | Dehradun (Doon) | Between Shiwaliks and Himachal |
| Biodiversity Hotspot | Silent Valley | Palakkad, Kerala |
| Peninsular Canyon | Gandikota | Pennar River, Andhra Pradesh |
Valley Systems
| Feature Type | Mapping Highlight | Key Location |
|---|---|---|
| Saffron Hub | Kashmir Valley | Between Pir Panjal and Himadri |
| Longitudinal Valley | Dehradun (Doon) | Between Shiwaliks and Himachal |
| Biodiversity Hotspot | Silent Valley | Palakkad, Kerala |
| Peninsular Canyon | Gandikota | Pennar River, AP |