IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 26 Jan 2026
NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-10 (Eighteenth-Century Political Formations)
Chapter 10, “Eighteenth-Century Political Formations,” describes the dramatic reshaping of the Indian subcontinent’s boundaries following the decline of the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707.
1. The Crisis of the Empire
The Mughal Empire faced a combination of factors that led to its decline:
- War of Succession: Aurangzeb fought long wars in the Deccan, which depleted the military and financial resources of the empire.
- Administrative Breakdown: The efficiency of the imperial administration broke down, making it difficult for later Mughal emperors to keep a check on their powerful mansabdars.
- Rebellions: Peasant and zamindari rebellions in many parts of northern and western India added to the pressure, often triggered by the burden of high taxes.
- Foreign Invasions: The ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah, sacked and looted the city of Delhi in 1739 and took away immense amounts of wealth. This was followed by five invasions by the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali between 1748 and 1761.
2. Emergence of New States
Through the eighteenth century, the Mughal Empire gradually fragmented into a number of independent, regional states. These states can be divided into three overlapping groups:
- The Old Mughal Provinces: States like Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad were extremely powerful and quite independent, but their rulers did not break formal ties with the Mughal emperor.
- Hyderabad: Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, who strengthened his position by bringing skilled soldiers and administrators from northern India and adopting the ijaradari system.
- Awadh: Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa’adat Khan was appointed subadar in 1722. He tried to decrease Mughal influence by reducing the number of jagirdars and appointing his own loyal servants to vacant positions.
- Bengal: Under Murshid Quli Khan, Bengal gradually broke away from Delhi’s control. He transferred all Mughal jagirdars to Orissa and ordered a major reassessment of the revenues of Bengal.
- Vatans of the Rajputs: Many Rajput kings, particularly those of Amber and Jodhpur, had served under the Mughals with distinction and were permitted to enjoy considerable autonomy in their vatan jagirs. In the eighteenth century, these rulers attempted to extend their control over adjacent regions.
- States under the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats: These groups had seized their independence from the Mughals after a long-drawn-out armed struggle.
3. The Sikhs
The organization of the Sikhs into a political community helped in regional state-building in the Punjab.
- Guru Gobind Singh: The tenth Guru fought several battles against the Rajput and Mughal rulers and established the Khalsa in 1699.
- Banda Bahadur: Under his leadership, the Khalsa rose in revolt against Mughal authority, declared their sovereign rule by striking coins in the name of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh, and established their own administration.
- Misls: In the eighteenth century, the Sikhs organized themselves into a number of bands called jathas, and later misls. Their combined forces were known as the grand army (dal khalsa).
4. The Marathas
The Maratha kingdom was another powerful regional kingdom to arise out of a sustained opposition to Mughal rule.
- Shivaji: Carved out a stable kingdom with the support of powerful warrior families (deshmukhs) and highly mobile peasant-pastoralists (kunbis).
- Peshwas: After Shivaji’s death, effective power in the Maratha state was wielded by a family of Chitpavan Brahmanas who served Shivaji’s successors as Peshwa (principal minister).
- Expansion: Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empire expanded, seizing Malwa and Gujarat from the Mughals and raiding Rajasthan, Bengal, and Orissa.
- Revenue: They collected chauth (25% of land revenue) and sardeshmukhi (9-10% of land revenue) from areas not under their direct control.
5. The Jats
Like the other states, the Jats consolidated their power during the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
- Churaman: Under his leadership, they acquired control over territories situated to the west of the city of Delhi.
- Suraj Mal: Under him, the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong state.
Eighteenth-Century Political Formations
Chauth
25% of the land revenue claimed by Marathas from non-Maratha territories.
Khalsa
The sovereign body of the Sikhs, transformed into a state power by Ranjit Singh.
Jats
Prosperous agriculturists who built a strong state at Bharatpur under Suraj Mal.
Class-7 History Chapter-10 PDF
Complete Study Notes: Eighteenth-Century Political Formations
⚖️Indian Polity: The Powers of the President: Executive & Legislative
The President is the supreme head of the Indian Union. While the office is “titular,” the legal weight of these powers is immense for the governance of the country.
1. Executive Powers
All executive actions of the Government of India are formally taken in the President’s name.
Key Appointments
The President appoints the most critical constitutional authorities in the country:
- The Prime Minister and other ministers (on the PM’s advice).
- The Attorney General of India (determines their remuneration and term).
- The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG), the Chief Election Commissioner, and the Chairman/Members of UPSC.
- The Governors of States.
- Inter-State Council: To promote Center-State and Inter-State cooperation.
Administrative Control
- The President can declare any area as a Scheduled Area and has powers regarding the administration of scheduled areas and tribal areas.
- He can require the Prime Minister to submit for consideration of the Council of Ministers any matter on which a decision has been taken by a minister but which has not been considered by the Council.
2. Legislative Powers
The President is a constituent part of the Parliament. This gives him several powers related to the legislative process.
- Summoning & Proroguing: He can summon or prorogue the Houses of Parliament and dissolve the Lok Sabha.
- Joint Sitting (Article 108): In case of a deadlock between the two Houses on an ordinary bill, he can call a joint sitting.
- Nominations: He nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha (from fields like Literature, Science, Art, and Social Service).
- Prior Recommendation: Certain bills cannot be introduced without his prior recommendation (e.g., Money Bills, or Bills for the alteration of state boundaries).
3. Veto Power (Article 111)
When a bill passed by Parliament is presented to the President for his assent, he has three options under Article 111:
- Absolute Veto: The power to say “No.” He withholds his assent to the bill. The bill then ends and does not become an act.
- Usually used for: Private members’ bills or when the cabinet resigns before assent is given.
- Suspensive Veto: The power to ask for a “Re-think.” He returns the bill to Parliament for reconsideration.
- Restriction: If Parliament passes the bill again (with or without amendments) and sends it back, the President must give his assent.
- Note: He cannot use this for Money Bills.
- Pocket Veto: The power to “Stay Silent.” He neither ratifies, rejects, nor returns the bill, but simply keeps it pending indefinitely.
- Exam Fact: The Indian President has a “bigger pocket” than the US President because the US President must return a bill within 10 days, while the Indian Constitution specifies no time limit.
4. Ordinance-Making Power (Article 123)
This is the most important legislative power, allowing the President to legislate when Parliament is not in session.
The “Must-Know” Conditions:
- Timing: Can be issued only when either House (or both) of Parliament is not in session.
- Necessity: The President must be satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary for him to take immediate action.
- Scope: An ordinance has the same force as an Act of Parliament, but it is a temporary law.
Life of an Ordinance:
- Every ordinance must be laid before both Houses of Parliament when they reassemble.
- The 6-Week Rule: If Parliament approves it, it becomes an Act. If no action is taken, it expires 6 weeks after the reassembly of Parliament.
- Maximum Life: Since the maximum gap between two sessions of Parliament is 6 months, the maximum life of an ordinance can be 6 months and 6 weeks.
Detailed Comparison Table
| Power Type | Article | Key Mandate | Implementation Detail |
| Veto Power | 111 | Assent to Bills | Absolute, Suspensive, or Pocket. |
| Ordinance | 123 | Law-making Power | Valid for 6 months + 6 weeks. |
| Joint Sitting | 108 | Resolve Deadlock | Called by President, Presided by Speaker. |
| Pardon | 72 | Judicial Relief | Can pardon even death sentences. |
Powers of the President
Absolute Veto
Power to withhold assent; the bill dies immediately and cannot become law.
Suspensive Veto
Returning a bill for reconsideration. If passed again, assent is mandatory.
Pocket Veto
Keeping the bill pending indefinitely. No time limit is fixed by the Constitution.
“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (26-January-2026)
Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 26, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.
1. The Republic at 77: A Federal Stress Test
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Indian Constitution; Federalism; Centre-State Relations).
Context: An analysis of the health of Indian federalism as the nation celebrates its 77th Republic Day, highlighting the growing friction between the Union and the States.
Key Points:
- Fiscal Centralization: The editorial notes that the share of States in divisible tax pools is being effectively diluted through the increased use of cesses and surcharges by the Centre.
- The Governor’s Role: Recent instances of Governors in states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal acting as “political surrogates” rather than constitutional bridges have strained executive relations.
- Legislative Overlap: Increased Union intervention in subjects traditionally under the State List (e.g., Agriculture, Health, and Education via centralized schemes) is raising concerns about “Unitary bias.”
- Language and Identity: The debate over “Hindi imposition” and the delimitation exercise due after 2027 are emerging as potential flashpoints for regional sub-nationalism.
UPSC Relevance: Essential for questions on “Nature of Indian Federalism,” “Role of Constitutional Functionaries,” and “Fiscal Federalism.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Cooperative vs. Competitive Federalism: The analysis argues that while “Competitive Federalism” has improved ease of doing business, it has undermined “Cooperative Federalism” in social welfare areas.
- Erosion of Autonomy: The imposition of centralized conditions on state borrowing limits is described as a “backdoor entry” into state financial management.
- Path Forward: The editorial suggests revitalizing the Inter-State Council and adopting the Sarkaria Commission’s recommendations on the appointment of Governors to restore trust.
2. Guarding the Guardians: Judicial Accountability
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Judiciary; Important aspects of governance; Accountability).
Context: A discussion on the need for a formal mechanism to address allegations of misconduct within the higher judiciary without compromising judicial independence.
Key Points:
- In-house Procedure Limitations: The current “in-house” mechanism for investigating judges is criticized for lacking transparency and public trust.
- Impeachment Hurdles: The constitutional process of impeachment is described as “practically impossible” due to its highly political nature and rigorous requirements.
- The “Uncle Judge” Syndrome: The editorial highlights concerns regarding nepotism in judicial appointments and the resulting “collegium vs. government” standoff.
- Judicial Standards Bill: There is a renewed call for a statutory framework, similar to the defunct Judicial Standards and Accountability Bill, to handle complaints against judges.
UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Judicial Reforms,” “Independence of Judiciary,” and “Checks and Balances.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Transparency vs. Independence: The piece argues that accountability is not the enemy of independence; rather, a “closed-door” approach often invites executive interference.
- Code of Conduct: Beyond legal requirements, the editorial emphasizes the need for a strictly enforced ethical code regarding post-retirement jobs and public engagements.
3. The AI Sieve: Finding New Worlds with ExoMiner++
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Science & Technology; Space Technology; Artificial Intelligence).
Context: NASA’s release of ExoMiner++, an open-source AI model designed to validate exoplanet candidates from Kepler and TESS mission data.
Key Points:
- Distinguishing Signals: The AI model helps separate true planetary transits (the dip in a star’s brightness) from false positives like binary stars or background noise.
- Explainable AI: Unlike “black-box” models, ExoMiner++ provides astronomers with a score and insights into why it classified a signal as a planet.
- Validation Success: The model has already validated 370 new exoplanets from Kepler data that were previously stuck in “scientific limbo” due to ambiguous signals.
- TESS and Beyond: The tool has identified 7,000 potential candidates in TESS data and is expected to be vital for the future Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope.
UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Applications of AI in Space Exploration,” “International Collaboration in Science,” and “Current Developments in Astronomy.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Democratization of Data: By making the software open-source on GitHub, NASA is allowing global researchers to refine algorithms and apply them to diverse datasets.
- The Big Data Challenge: With petabytes of data from space telescopes, AI is no longer a luxury but a necessity for modern astrophysics to move beyond human-limited analysis.
4. Living with the Virus: The Endemicity of Dengue
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Health).
Context: A review of India’s evolving public health response as Dengue transitions from a seasonal outbreak to a year-round endemic threat in urban centers.
Key Points:
- Viral Persistence: Changing rainfall patterns and rapid, unplanned urbanization have created permanent breeding grounds for the Aedes aegypti mosquito.
- Strain Diversity: The co-circulation of all four Dengue serotypes (DENV-1 to 4) increases the risk of Severe Dengue (Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever) due to antibody-dependent enhancement.
- Vaccine Hurdles: While global vaccines like Qdenga exist, India’s specific serotype distribution requires localized clinical trials and a cautious rollout strategy.
- Community Apathy: The editorial notes that source reduction (removing stagnant water) has failed as a top-down government approach, requiring a “Jan Andolan” (people’s movement) instead.
UPSC Relevance: Important for “Public Health Management,” “Urban Planning and Health,” and “Epidemiological Trends.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Genome Sequencing: The lekh advocates for increased genomic surveillance to track the virulence of different strains and predict future surge patterns.
- Integrated Vector Management: Moving beyond fogging (which is largely cosmetic), the focus must shift to biological controls like the Wolbachia bacteria-infected mosquitoes.
5. Data Point: The Pulse of Rural Consumption
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Mobilization of resources; Poverty and Developmental issues).
Context: Analysis of recent FMCG sales data indicating a tentative recovery in rural demand after a long period of stagnation.
Key Points:
- Volume Growth: Rural markets have started outperforming urban markets in volume growth for the first time in two years, driven by lower-unit-price packs.
- Wage Lag: Despite the volume uptick, real rural wages (adjusted for inflation) remain nearly flat, suggesting that consumption is being driven by necessity rather than increased wealth.
- Impact of Monsoons: The recovery is heavily dependent on the “normal” monsoon forecast, which stabilizes agricultural income and lowers food inflation.
- FMCG Strategy: Companies are shifting focus to “bridge packs” (mid-sized products) to capture the emerging demand from the rural middle class.
UPSC Relevance: Key for understanding “Rural-Urban Economic Divide,” “Consumption Patterns,” and “FMCG Sector as an Economic Indicator.”
Detailed Analysis:
- K-Shaped Recovery: The data suggests a widening gap between premium consumption (Urban) and value consumption (Rural), indicating that the recovery is not uniform across all income strata.
- MGNREGA as a Buffer: The editorial emphasizes that continued government spending on rural employment schemes is critical to sustaining this consumption momentum until private investment picks up.
Editorial Analysis
JANUARY 02, 2026Open-source AI validated 370 New Exoplanets. Shift to Explainable AI to distinguish planetary transits from background noise.
Dengue shifts to a year-round threat. Risk peaks with 4 Serotypes co-circulating. Focus must move to biological controls like Wolbachia.
Rural growth outpaces urban packs; however, Real Wages remain flat, indicating consumption is driven by necessity rather than wealth.
Ethics of Duty
Mapping:
For today’s mapping session, we will focus on India’s Major Energy Resources. This is a vital topic for your UPSC & PCS exams, as it covers the geographic distribution of Coal, Petroleum, and Nuclear Power—essential for understanding India’s economic and industrial foundation.
1. Coal Fields (The Black Gold)
Coal is concentrated in the Gondwana and Tertiary formations. For mapping, focus on the “Coal Belts” of Eastern and Central India.
- Gondwana Coal (98% of reserves): Found in the river valleys of Damodar, Mahanadi, Son, and Godavari.
- Jharia (Jharkhand): The largest coal field in India; famous for high-quality coking coal.
- Raniganj (West Bengal): The first coal mine opened in India.
- Bokaro & Giridih (Jharkhand): Major centers for the steel industry.
- Korba (Chhattisgarh): A massive open-cast mining hub.
- Singareni (Telangana): The only coal field in the southern part of the country.
- Tertiary Coal (Lignite):
- Neyveli (Tamil Nadu): The most significant lignite (brown coal) reserve in India.
2. Petroleum and Natural Gas
Petroleum mapping covers offshore and onshore basins located in the sedimentary rocks of the coastal and northern regions.
- Western Offshore:
- Mumbai High: India’s largest petroleum field, located in the Arabian Sea.
- Bassein: Located south of Mumbai High, famous for natural gas.
- Eastern Onshore/Offshore:
- Digboi (Assam): The oldest oil well in India (drilled in the 19th century).
- Naharkatiya & Moran-Hugrijan (Assam): Other major NE oil fields.
- KG Basin (Krishna-Godavari): A major deep-water gas reserve in the Bay of Bengal.
- North-Western Onshore:
- Ankleshwar & Kalol (Gujarat): Key fields in the Cambay basin.
- Barmer Basin (Rajasthan): Home to the Mangala oil field, one of the largest onshore discoveries.
3. Nuclear Power Plants
Nuclear mapping is crucial for the “Science & Technology” and “Environment” sections of your prep.
| Plant Name | State | Significance |
| Narora | Uttar Pradesh | Located in the fertile Gangetic plains near the Ganga. |
| Rawatbhata | Rajasthan | Situated near the Rana Pratap Sagar Dam on the Chambar River. |
| Kakrapar | Gujarat | Located in the industrial belt near Surat. |
| Tarapur | Maharashtra | India’s first commercial nuclear power station (established in 1969). |
| Kaiga | Karnataka | Located in the Western Ghats; crucial for the southern grid. |
| Kalpakkam (MAPS) | Tamil Nadu | India’s first fully indigenous nuclear power station. |
| Kudankulam | Tamil Nadu | The highest capacity nuclear plant in India (VVER reactors). |
Summary Mapping Checklist
| Category | Mapping Highlight | Key Location |
| Largest Coal Field | Jharia | Jharkhand |
| Oldest Oil Field | Digboi | Assam |
| First Nuclear Plant | Tarapur | Maharashtra |
| Largest Nuclear Plant | Kudankulam | Tamil Nadu |
Mapping Brief
ENERGY RESOURCES OF INDIAKey sites include Tarapur (MH), India’s first station, and Kudankulam (TN), the highest capacity plant. Narora stands as a key northern hub in the Gangetic plains.
The KG Basin is a major deep-water gas reserve. Onshore, the Barmer Basin (RJ) hosts the Mangala field, while Ankleshwar serves as a key industrial field in Gujarat.
The most significant brown coal reserve is located at Neyveli (Tamil Nadu), essential for the southern power grid.