IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 20 Jan 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-5 (Rulers and Buildings)

Chapter 5, “Rulers and Buildings,” explores the architectural achievements between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, highlighting how kings expressed their power, devotion, and cultural influences through construction.

1. Types of Structures

During this period, kings and their officers built two distinct kinds of structures:

Forts, Palaces, and Tombs: These were safe, protected, and grandiose places of rest for the rulers in this world and the next.
Structures for Public Activity: These included temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravan serais, and bazaars. Rulers built these for the comfort and use of their subjects to win their praise and care for them.

2. Engineering Skills and Construction

The precision required for these buildings, like placing inscriptions on the curved surface of the Qutb Minar, demonstrates the high level of skill possessed by craftspersons.

Trabeate (Corbelled) Principle: Between the eighth and thirteenth centuries, architects used this style, where roofs, doors, and windows were made by placing a horizontal beam across two vertical columns.
Arcuate Principle: From the twelfth century, two major technological developments appeared:
- The weight of the superstructure above doors and windows was sometimes carried by arches.
- Limestone cement was increasingly used in construction, which, when mixed with stone chips, hardened into high-quality concrete, making the construction of large structures easier and faster.

3. Building Temples, Mosques, and Tanks

Temples and mosques were beautifully constructed because they were places of worship and meant to demonstrate the power, wealth, and devotion of the patron.

Temples as Symbols: A king would often name a temple after himself (e.g., King Rajarajadeva built the Rajarajeshvara temple for the worship of his god, Rajarajeshvaram) to appear like a god.
The Largest Temples: These were usually built by kings, while other, lesser deities in the temple were the gods and goddesses of the ruler’s allies and subordinates.
Mosques and Sultans: While Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of god, Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the “Shadow of God”.
Water Importance: Rulers often built tanks and reservoirs to provide water to the public, such as Iltutmish’s Hauz-i-Sultani (the King’s Reservoir).

4. Why Were Temples Targeted?

Because kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion and power, they were frequent targets during invasions.

When rulers attacked one another’s kingdoms, they often targeted these buildings to seize the wealth and prestige associated with them.
For example, the Chola king Rajendra I filled a temple he built with statues seized from defeated rulers, and Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the Somnath temple during his campaigns.

5. Mughal Architecture

The Mughals made architecture even more complex by fusing different styles.

Chahar Bagh: Babur was fond of formal gardens, placed within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels, a layout known as chahar bagh.
Pietra Dura: During Shah Jahan’s reign, a series of pietra dura inlays (colored, hard stones placed in depressions carved into marble or sandstone) were used behind his throne in the Diwan-i-Am in Delhi.
The Taj Mahal: Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden for the layout of the Taj Mahal, where the white marble mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of the river Yamuna, with the garden to its south.

6. Region and Empire

As empires grew, architectural styles were shared across regions.

In Vijayanagara, the elephant stables of the rulers were strongly influenced by the style of architecture found in the adjoining Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.
In Vrindavan, temples were built in architectural styles very similar to the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri.
Mughal rulers were particularly skilled in adapting regional architectural styles, such as the “Bangla dome” from Bengal, into their own buildings.

🏛️ Rulers & Buildings (8th-18th C.)

🏗️ Engineering Marvels

Architecture shifted from the Trabeate (horizontal beams) style to the Arcuate principle, where arches carried the weight. The use of Limestone Cement allowed for massive concrete structures.

🕌 Sacred Symbols

Temples demonstrated a king’s power and wealth. While Sultans didn’t claim to be incarnations, they were described as the Shadow of God. Rulers built Hauz (reservoirs) to win public praise.

🌸 Mughal Innovation

Mughals introduced the Chahar Bagh (four-part gardens). Shah Jahan popularized Pietra Dura—colored stone inlays in marble—and the River-front garden layout seen at the Taj Mahal.

🔄 Cross-Cultural Exchange

Styles blended across regions: Vijayanagara stables were influenced by Sultanate designs, while Mughals adapted the Bangla Dome. In Vrindavan, temples mirrored the palaces of Fatehpur Sikri.

Warfare Policy Because temples were symbols of power and immense wealth, they became the primary targets when rulers attacked each other’s kingdoms.

📂

Class-7 History Chapter-5 PDF

Complete Study Notes: Rulers and Buildings

Download Now

⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 42-45

Part IV of the Constitution, Articles 42 to 45 focus on humanizing the workplace, ensuring a dignified standard of living, and prioritizing the foundation of education. These articles are categorized primarily as Socialistic and Liberal-Intellectual principles.

Human Welfare and Early Education: Articles 42–45
These directives aim to bridge the gap between mere survival and a life of dignity. They guide the State to create an environment where work is humane and the future (children) is secured.

Article 42: Humane Conditions of Work and Maternity Relief

This article recognizes that the “Right to Work” (from Art. 41) is meaningless if the work environment is oppressive or hazardous.

Mandate: The State shall make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief.
Significance: It emphasizes that workers are not just “tools of production” but human beings with rights to health and dignity.
Implementation:
- The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (and 2017 amendment): Provides for paid leave and benefits for pregnant employees.
- Factories Act, 1948: Ensures safety, health, and welfare of workers in factories.

Article 43: Living Wage for Workers

Article 43 moves beyond “Minimum Wage” toward the concept of a “Living Wage.”

Mandate: The State shall endeavor to secure to all workers (agricultural, industrial, or otherwise) a living wage and conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life and full enjoyment of leisure and social and cultural opportunities.
Promotion of Cottage Industries: It specifically directs the State to promote cottage industries on an individual or co-operative basis in rural areas (Gandhian Principle).

Difference between Minimum Wage and Living Wage

Minimum Wage: Bare minimum to cover food, clothing, and shelter.
Living Wage: Covers basic needs plus education, health, and social security.

Article 43A: Participation of Workers in Management

Origin: Added by the 42nd Amendment Act (1976).
Mandate: The State shall take steps to secure the participation of workers in the management of undertakings, establishments, or other organizations engaged in any industry.
Goal: To promote industrial democracy and reduce the gap between owners and laborers.

Article 43B: Promotion of Co-operative Societies

Origin: Added by the 97th Amendment Act (2011).
Mandate: The State shall endeavor to promote voluntary formation, autonomous functioning, democratic control, and professional management of co-operative societies.

Article 44: Uniform Civil Code (UCC)

This is one of the most discussed and debated articles in the Indian Constitution.

Mandate: The State shall endeavor to secure for the citizens a Uniform Civil Code throughout the territory of India.
Definition: A UCC would replace personal laws based on the scriptures and customs of each major religious community in the country with a common set of laws governing every citizen.
Scope: It covers secular matters like marriage, divorce, maintenance, inheritance, and adoption.
Current Status: While Goa has a common family law (Portuguese Civil Code), the UCC has not been implemented nationally, though various states have recently moved toward drafting their own versions.

Article 45: Provision for Early Childhood Care and Education

This article was significantly altered by the 86th Amendment Act (2002).

Original Provision: Provided for free and compulsory education for all children until the age of 14.
Current Mandate: The State shall endeavor to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years.
The Shift: After the 86th Amendment, the “Right to Education” for children aged 6–14 became a Fundamental Right (Article 21A). Article 45 now focuses on the “pre-school” or Anganwadi stage (0–6 years).

Detailed Summary Table

Article	Nature	Core Focus	Key Legislation
42	Socialistic	Maternity Relief & Humane Work	Maternity Benefit Act
43	Socialistic/Gandhian	Living Wage & Cottage Industries	MGNREGA / Khadi Board
43A	Socialistic	Workers’ Participation	Trade Unions Act
43B	Liberal	Co-operative Societies	97th Amendment
44	Liberal	Uniform Civil Code	(Ongoing Debate)
45	Liberal	Education for 0–6 years	ICDS / Anganwadis

🏢 Human Welfare & UCC

🤰 Art 42: Maternity & Humane Work

Ensures Maternity Relief and “just and humane” work conditions. Workers are treated as human beings, not just tools of production. (Ref: Maternity Benefit Act).

🥖 Art 43: Living Wage

State must strive for a Living Wage (covers basic needs + health/education) and promote Cottage Industries in rural areas (Gandhian goal).

🤝 Art 43A & 43B: Co-ops

43A: Worker participation in industrial management. 43B: Voluntary formation and democratic control of Co-operative Societies.

⚖️ Art 44: Uniform Civil Code

Directs the State to secure a Uniform Civil Code (UCC) for all citizens, replacing religion-based personal laws for marriage, divorce, and inheritance.

👶 Art 45: Early Childhood Care (0–6 Years)

Modified by the 86th Amendment. While 6–14 years is now a Fundamental Right (Art 21A), Article 45 focuses on Early Childhood Care and pre-school education for those under age six.

Art.	Nature	Core Focus	Key Legislation
42	Socialistic	Maternity Relief	Maternity Benefit Act
43	Gandhian	Living Wage	MGNREGA / Khadi Board
43A	Socialistic	Workers’ Participation	Trade Unions Act
44	Liberal	Uniform Civil Code	(State-level drafts)
45	Liberal	0–6 Year Care	ICDS / Anganwadis

Legal Insight A “Living Wage” is superior to a “Minimum Wage” as it includes social security, health, and education, ensuring a truly dignified standard of life.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (20-January-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 20, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Regional Saffron: The BJP’s Ascent in Maharashtra

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Polity; Important aspects of governance; Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act).

Context: An analysis of the recent municipal corporation election results in Maharashtra, signaling a major shift in the state’s political landscape.

Key Points:

BJP’s Electoral Dominance: The BJP has emerged as the single largest party in key cities like Pune, Nagpur, and Nashik, securing approximately 1,425 out of 2,869 seats across 29 municipal corporations.
Identity Politics Reimagined: The party has “smartly” adopted the legacy of Balasaheb Thackeray by blending Marathi nativism with Hindu communalism to cater to changing urban demographics.
Leadership Growth: Chief Minister Devendra Fadnavis has solidified his standing, successfully balancing ideological expectations with the complexities of governance.
Decline of Traditional Blocs: Power centers like the Pawar and Thackeray families performed poorly, with the BJP-Shinde alliance seizing control of the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC)—a body Uddhav Thackeray controlled for 25 years.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for questions regarding “Regionalism vs. National Parties,” “Electoral Politics and Demographics,” and the “Evolution of Ideological Narratives in India.”

Detailed Analysis:

Demographic Leverage: The editorial notes that the BJP has utilized migration-led population changes to win over Hindi-speaking voters, effectively weakening traditional nativist politics.
Shiv Sena’s Struggle: Various Sena factions are finding it difficult to adapt to a changing population because their “nativist” past restricts their political maneuvering.
The Inclusivity Argument: The lekh warns that replacing nativism with communalism is not ideal for the state; it suggests the BJP should drive its ambitions through a more inclusive platform.

2. Fractured Yemen: Geopolitical Fault Lines

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of policies and politics of developed/developing countries on India’s interests).

Context: Recent escalations in fighting between Yemen’s Saudi-backed government and the UAE-backed Southern Transitional Council (STC).

Key Points:

Regional Rivalries: The conflict brought Saudi-UAE tensions into the open, with Riyadh accusing Abu Dhabi of transferring weapons to Yemeni separatists.
Houthi Entrenchment: As southern factions remained divided, the Houthi militia (Ansar Allah) strengthened its control over northern population centers.
Humanitarian Toll: Yemen faces one of the world’s worst crises, with millions on the brink of famine, a ruined economy, and devastated infrastructure.
UAE Withdrawal: Following a public rebuke from Saudi Arabia, the UAE announced its withdrawal of forces from Yemen and an end to its “counterterrorism operations.”

UPSC Relevance: Vital for understanding “West Asian Geopolitics,” “Proxy Wars,” and “International Humanitarian Crisis Management.”

Detailed Analysis:

Federal Structure Solution: For lasting peace, the editorial advocates for all Yemeni factions to establish a federal governance structure to address power dynamics and historical grievances.
Burying the Hatchet: The piece emphasizes that Saudi Arabia and the UAE must work jointly for stability in their neighbor rather than supporting opposing proxies.
Impact of Air Power: Saudi air power was critical in allowing government forces to recapture lost areas in Hadhramaut and al-Mahra.

3. Calling out the ED’s Actions: The Media Trials

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Statutory, Regulatory and Quasi-judicial bodies; Important aspects of governance).

Context: A critique of the Enforcement Directorate’s (ED) recent pattern of investigations and the role of “media trials” in damaging reputations before judicial scrutiny.

Key Points:

Inversion of Logic: Under the PMLA (2002), the ED is accused of treating money laundering as independent of an underlying crime, rather than first establishing a “scheduled offence.”
Procedural Overreach: Under Section 50 of the PMLA, the agency can summon anyone and record statements under oath that reverse the presumption of innocence for bail.
Judicial Setbacks: Courts, including the Supreme Court, have stayed ED probes, observing that the agency was “crossing all limits” and violating federal principles.
Institutional Integrity: Cases of ED officials caught taking bribes or extorting money have undermined the agency’s moral authority.

UPSC Relevance: Crucial for topics like “Abuse of Investigative Powers,” “Judicial Oversight,” and “Ethics in Journalism.”

Detailed Analysis:

Media Complicity: The editorial criticizes journalists for acting as “conduits” for selective leaks, noting that “journalism is not stenography.”
Constitutional Guardrails: The piece argues that only firm limits can prevent investigative authority from mutating into arbitrary state power.
Democratic Health: It likens the ED to a “hound let loose,” warning that false or weak cases normalize authoritarian overreach and erode faith in institutions.

4. Diplomatic White Spaces: India’s 2026 Strategy

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India).

Context: Exploring India’s opportunities to lead in “diplomatic white spaces”—gaps in global leadership where major powers are at odds.

Key Points:

India-EU FTA: The presence of EU leadership at the 2026 Republic Day parade signals a push for the India-EU Free Trade Agreement as a “de-risking compact.”
Navigating BRICS: As the 2026 chair, India must steer the group away from anti-West rhetoric toward practical delivery through the New Development Bank.
The Quad’s Utility: India can make the Quad useful for Indian Ocean littoral states by converting its maritime domain awareness capabilities into accessible services.
New Tables: The invitation for India to join “Pax Silica” (a US-led AI and semiconductor club) highlights the shift toward smaller, functional diplomatic coalitions.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for questions on “India’s Global Leadership,” “Multi-alignment Strategy,” and the “Future of Multilateralism.”

Detailed Analysis:

Small Tables, Big Dividends: The editorial suggests that in a divided world, outcomes are shifting to smaller coalitions where things actually get done, rather than large, weak forums like the UN.
Strategic Balance: India’s momentum in 2026 will come from turning “white spaces” into working arrangements for global public goods like AI standards and supply chain security.

5. A Centrist Lens on ‘Illegal Immigration’

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Electoral Reforms; Constitutional Bodies; Citizenship).

Context: An analysis of the political reactions to the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls and the potency of the undocumented immigration issue.

Key Points:

Voter List Revision: Despite handling disputes, there is an “overwhelming sense” that revising voter lists is necessary to remove dead and duplicate entries.
Public Anxiety: The editorial notes that the opposition’s denial of undocumented immigrants in the face of evidence alienates a section of the public concerned with national security.
Institutional Failure: The SIR 2.0 has relied on error-prone paper-based forms and physical hearings (summoning even Nobel laureates) instead of fully using the ECINet digital infrastructure.
Electoral Integrity: The exercise omitted nearly 6.5 crore electors, leading to accusations of “vote chori” from the opposition.

UPSC Relevance: Key for understanding “Electoral Roll Integrity,” “Internal Security Challenges,” and the “Politics of Citizenship.”

Detailed Analysis:

Nuanced Conversation: A prudent course would be to build a conversation focusing on legal work authorizations and national security without dismissive rhetoric.
Digital-First Remedy: The piece advocates for a system built on online document upload and backend verification to make the process fairer and more humane.
Safeguarding Trust: Electoral reform succeeds through inclusion and the responsible use of digital tools, safeguarding the foundations of public trust.

Editorial Analysis

Jan 20, 2026

GS-2 Polity

🗳️ Maharashtra: The Regional Saffron Shift

BJP secures 1,425 out of 2,869 seats in municipal polls, displacing traditional nativist blocs. Key Strategy: Blending Marathi nativism with communalism to capture changing urban demographics. The BJP-Shinde alliance now controls the BMC, ending a 25-year Thackeray dominance.

GS-2 IR

🇾🇪 Fractured Yemen: Saudi-UAE Rivalry

Geopolitical fault lines deepen as the UAE withdraws forces following Riyadh’s rebuke over weaponry transfers to separatists. Result: Houthi entrenchment in northern centers. Solution: A Federal Structure is vital for lasting peace in the humanitarian-crisis-ridden state.

GS-2 Agency

⚖️ ED & The Ethics of Media Trials

Critique of the Enforcement Directorate for treating money laundering as independent of a “scheduled offence.” Under PMLA Section 50, statements under oath reverse the Presumption of Innocence. Warning: Selective media leaks act as conduits for arbitrary state power.

GS-2 IR

🌍 Diplomatic White Spaces: 2026 Vision

India aims to lead in leadership gaps through small, functional coalitions. Key Moves: India-EU FTA as a “De-risking Compact” and joining the Pax Silica (U.S.-led AI/Semi bloc). Strategy: Turning “white spaces” into working arrangements for global public goods.

GS-2 Gov.

📜 Electoral SIR: Digital vs. Paper

Special Intensive Revision (SIR) 2.0 omitted 6.5 Crore electors, sparking “vote chori” allegations. Critique: Reliance on error-prone paper forms and physical hearings instead of ECINet infrastructure. Prudent path: Conversation on security without dismissive rhetoric.

Mapping:

Today’s mapping notes focus on India’s Ocean Geography and Maritime Strategic Points.

1. Important Channels and Straits

Strategic waterways and channels are vital for maritime trade and security. Mapping these requires precision regarding the latitude lines.

8 Degree Channel: Separates the Lakshadweep Islands (specifically Minicoy) from the Maldives.
9 Degree Channel: Separates Minicoy Island from the rest of the Lakshadweep archipelago.
10 Degree Channel: Separates the Andaman Islands from the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.
Duncan Passage: Located between South Andaman and Little Andaman.
Palk Strait: A narrow strip of water separating India (Tamil Nadu) from Sri Lanka.
Coco Channel: Separates the Andaman Islands from the Coco Islands (Myanmar).

2. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and Maritime Boundaries

India has a massive EEZ that provides rights over marine resources.

Continental Shelf: The shallow part of the ocean floor extending from the coast.
EEZ Limit: Extends up to 200 nautical miles from the baseline. India’s EEZ covers approximately 2.02 million sq. km.
Strategic Bases:
- Port Blair (Andaman): Headquarters of India’s only tri-service command.
- Karwar (INS Kadamba): One of India’s largest naval bases on the Western coast.
- Visakhapatnam: Eastern Naval Command headquarters.

3. Major Coral Reef Formations

Mapping India’s coral reefs is critical for ecological and environmental geography.

Region	Type of Reef	Significance
Lakshadweep	Atolls	Entirely composed of coral islands; highly sensitive ecosystem.
Gulf of Mannar	Fringing Reefs	Located between India and Sri Lanka; a Biosphere Reserve.
Andaman & Nicobar	Fringing Reefs	The most extensive coral reefs in India.
Gulf of Kutch	Fringing Reefs	Northernmost coral reefs in India; found in shallow waters.

4. Major Gulfs and Bays

These features define the shape of the Indian coastline.

Gulf of Kutch: Located in Gujarat; known for high tidal energy potential.
Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay): Located in Gujarat; site of major offshore oil exploration.
Gulf of Mannar: Located in the south; famous for pearl diving and marine biodiversity.
Bay of Bengal: The largest bay in the world, influencing the Indian monsoon.

Summary Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Key Location
Southernmost Point	Indira Point	Great Nicobar Island
Tri-Service Base	Port Blair	South Andaman
Coral Capital	Kavaratti	Lakshadweep
Adam’s Bridge	Rama Setu	Between Pamban Island and Mannar Island

Maritime Horizons

Straits & Passages

🧭 Strategic Channels

Strategic latitudes like the 8°, 9°, and 10° Channels define the corridors of the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Meanwhile, the Palk Strait and Duncan Passage act as vital maritime chokepoints.

Mission: Locate the 10 Degree Channel on a map and identify the two island groups it separates.

Security

⚓ Naval Command Hubs

India’s maritime defense is anchored at Port Blair (Tri-Service Command), Karwar (INS Kadamba), and the Eastern Command at Visakhapatnam.

Mission: Trace the 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) limit from the Indian baseline.

Marine Biology

🐚 Coral Formations

India’s coral wealth ranges from the Atolls of Lakshadweep to the extensive Fringing Reefs of the Andaman and the Gulf of Mannar.

Region	Reef Type	Significance
Lakshadweep	Atolls	Entirely coral island ecosystem
Gulf of Mannar	Fringing	Marine Biosphere Reserve
Gulf of Kutch	Fringing	Northernmost shallow water reefs

Coastal Geometry

🌊 Gulfs & Tidal Energy

The coastline is indented by the Gulf of Kutch (tidal potential) and the Gulf of Khambhat (offshore oil), which define Gujarat’s unique maritime profile.

Mission: Identify the location of “Adam’s Bridge” (Rama Setu) between Pamban Island and Mannar Island.

Maritime Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Key Location
Southernmost Tip	Indira Point	Great Nicobar Island
Coral Capital	Kavaratti	Lakshadweep Archipelago
Tri-Service Base	Port Blair	South Andaman Island
Pearl Diving	Gulf of Mannar	Southern Coast (TN)

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 19 Jan 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-4 (The Mughal Empire)

Chapter 4, “The Creation of an Empire: The Mughal Dynasty,” explores the rise, administration, and legacy of one of the most significant dynasties in Indian history.

1. Who were the Mughals?

The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers:

Mother’s side: Descendants of Genghis Khan (died 1227), the Mongol ruler of China and Central Asia.
Father’s side: Successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq, and modern-day Turkey.
Identity: They preferred to be called Timurids rather than Mughals or Mongols, as the name “Mongol” was associated with the memory of Genghis Khan’s massacres and their Uzbek competitors.

2. Mughal Military Campaigns

Babur (1526–1530): The first Mughal emperor, he seized Kabul in 1504 and later defeated Sultan Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, capturing Delhi and Agra.
Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556): His reign was interrupted by Sher Shah Suri, who forced him to flee to Iran. He recaptured Delhi in 1555 with Safavid aid.
Akbar (1556–1605): Became emperor at age 13. He expanded the empire across North India, Gujarat, Bengal, and the Deccan.
Jahangir (1605–1627) and Shah Jahan (1627–1658): Continued military campaigns in the Deccan and against the Ahoms, Sikhs, and Mewar.
Aurangzeb (1658–1707): The empire reached its farthest territorial extent under him, but his reign faced constant rebellions from the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Satnamis.

3. Mughal Traditions of Succession

The Mughals did not follow primogeniture (where the eldest son inherits the entire estate).
Instead, they practiced the Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance, which involved dividing the inheritance among all the sons. This often led to civil wars among brothers for the throne.

4. Mansabdars and Jagirdars

As the empire expanded, the Mughals recruited diverse bodies of officials:

Mansabdars: This term refers to an individual who holds a mansab (a position or rank).
Zat: Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called zat. The higher the zat, the more prestigious the noble’s position and the larger his salary.
Military Responsibility: Mansabdars were required to maintain a specified number of sawar (cavalrymen).
Jagirs: Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs, which were somewhat like iqtas. Unlike muqtis, most mansabdars did not reside in or administer their jagirs; they only had rights to the revenue collected by their servants.

5. Zabt and Zamindars

The main source of income for the Mughal Empire was tax on the produce of the peasantry.

Zamindars: The Mughals used one term—zamindars—to describe all intermediaries, whether they were local headmen of villages or powerful chieftains.
Todar Mal’s Revenue System: Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey of crop yields, prices, and areas cultivated for a 10-year period (1570–1580).
Zabt: Based on this data, tax was fixed on each crop in cash. Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of revenue rates; this system was known as zabt.

6. Akbar’s Policies and “Sulh-i Kul”

Abul Fazl wrote a three-volume history of Akbar’s reign titled Akbarnama, the third volume of which is the Ain-i Akbari.

Administration: The empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by a subadar who exercised both political and military functions.
Religious Tolerance: Akbar’s discussions with various religious scholars led to the idea of sulh-i kul or “universal peace”. This system of ethics—focusing on honesty, justice, and peace—did not discriminate between people of different religions in his realm.

7. The Empire in the 17th Century and After

By the end of the 17th century, the efficiency of the Mughal administration began to decline.

Economic Disparity: While the empire was known for its great wealth, there was enormous poverty alongside it. A small number of high-ranking mansabdars (only 445 out of 8,000) received 61.5% of the total estimated revenue of the empire.
Decline: As the authority of the emperor declined, governors of provinces like Hyderabad and Awadh consolidated their own power and constituted new dynasties, though they continued to recognize the Mughal emperor in Delhi as their overlord.

👑 The Mughal Empire (1526-1707)

⚔️ Timurid Lineage

Descended from Genghis Khan and Timur. Babur founded the empire in 1526 at Panipat. They practiced Coparcenary Inheritance, dividing the empire among all sons.

🎖️ Mansabs & Jagirs

Mansabdars held ranks determined by Zat (numerical value). They maintained cavalry (Sawar) and received salaries as revenue assignments called Jagirs.

📜 Zabt & Revenue

Akbar’s minister, Todar Mal, surveyed crops for 10 years. Under the Zabt system, each crop had a fixed cash tax. Intermediaries were collectively called Zamindars.

🕊️ Akbar’s Governance

Provinces (Subas) were led by Subadars. Akbar promoted Sulh-i Kul (Universal Peace), an ethical system of honesty and justice, detailed in the Ain-i Akbari.

Decline By the late 17th century, immense wealth was concentrated in a few hands—only 445 nobles (out of 8,000) received over 61% of the empire’s total revenue.

📂

Class-7 History Chapter-4 PDF

Complete Study Notes: The Mughal Empire

Download Now

⚖️Indian Polity: Part IV: Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 36–41)

The Directive Principles are the “Instrument of Instructions” (a term from the Government of India Act, 1935) that guide the government in policy-making. They aim to transform India from a “Police State” into a Welfare State.

Key Characteristics

Constitutional Position: Part IV, Articles 36 to 51.
Source: Borrowed from the Irish Constitution.
Objective: Achieving Social and Economic Democracy.
Nature: Non-justiciable. You cannot sue the government if they fail to meet a directive, but they are “fundamental in the governance of the country” (Art. 37).

Article 36: Definition of “State”

For the purposes of DPSP, the “State” has the same meaning as it does in Article 12 (Fundamental Rights).

It includes the Government and Parliament of India, State Governments, Legislatures, and all local or other authorities (like Municipalities or LIC) within the territory of India.

Article 37: Application of Principles

This article clarifies the legal status of DPSP.
Two Key Provisions:
- Non-enforceable: These principles are not enforceable by any court.
- Fundamental Governance: Despite being non-justiciable, it is the duty of the State to apply these principles when making laws.

Article 38: State to Secure a Social Order

This is considered the “Key” article of DPSP as it defines the goal of a Welfare State. It has two specific dimensions:

38(1): The State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order in which Justice—Social, Economic, and Political—shall inform all institutions of national life.
38(2): Added by the 44th Amendment (1978), it directs the State to minimize inequalities in income, status, facilities, and opportunities among individuals and groups.

Article 39: Certain Principles of Policy to be Followed by the State

This article is a collection of six specific goals (39a to 39f).

39(a): Right to adequate means of livelihood for all citizens.
39(b): Equitable distribution of material resources of the community for the common good.
39(c): Prevention of concentration of wealth and means of production.
39(d): Equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
39(e): Protection of health/strength of workers and avoiding abuse of children.
39(f): Opportunities for the healthy development of children (Added by 42nd Amendment).

Article 39A: Equal Justice and Free Legal Aid

Origin: Inserted by the 42nd Amendment Act (1976).
Mandate: The State must ensure that the legal system promotes justice on a basis of equal opportunity.
Implementation: It specifically directs the State to provide Free Legal Aid so that no citizen is denied justice due to economic or other disabilities. This led to the enactment of the Legal Services Authorities Act (1987) and the establishment of NALSA (National Legal Services Authority).

Article 40: Organization of Village Panchayats

Philosophy: Reflects the Gandhian Ideology of “Gram Swaraj.”
Mandate: The State shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government.
Implementation: This was finally given constitutional status via the 73rd Amendment Act (1992).

Article 41: Right to Work, Education, and Public Assistance

This article focuses on social security. The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing:
1. The Right to Work.
2. The Right to Education.
3. The Right to Public Assistance in cases of:
  - Unemployment
  - Old Age
  - Sickness
  - Disablement
  - “Undeserved want”
Implementation: Schemes like MGNREGA and Old Age Pension schemes are direct results of Article 41.

Detailed Summary Table

Article	Category	Core Key-Word	Implementation Example
36	General	State Definition	Linked to Article 12
37	Nature	Non-Justiciable	Guidance for law-making
38	Welfare	Justice & Equality	Poverty Alleviation Schemes
39	Socialist	Distributive Justice	Equal Remuneration Act
39A	Justice	Free Legal Aid	NALSA / Lok Adalats
40	Gandhian	Panchayats	73rd Amendment Act
41	Welfare	Public Assistance	MGNREGA / Pension Schemes

🌿 Directive Principles (Part IV)

⚖️ Nature of DPSP

Borrowed from the Irish Constitution. They are Non-justiciable instructions to transform India from a “Police State” into a Welfare State.

📜 Articles 36 & 37

Art 36: Defines State (same as Art 12). Art 37: Principles are not enforceable by courts but are Fundamental in the governance of the country.

🌍 Art 38: Social Order

Directs the State to secure Justice (Social, Economic, and Political) and to minimize inequalities in income, status, and opportunities.

💰 Art 39 & 39A: Distribution

Mandates Equal Pay for Equal Work and equitable distribution of resources. Art 39A ensures Free Legal Aid via bodies like NALSA.

🏘️ Art 40: Panchayats

The Gandhian vision of Gram Swaraj. Mandates organizing Village Panchayats as units of self-government (fulfilled by the 73rd Amendment).

🛡️ Art 41: Social Security

Right to work, education, and public assistance during Unemployment, Old Age, or Sickness. This provides the basis for schemes like MGNREGA.

Art.	Core Key-Word	Implementation Example
38	Welfare State	Poverty Alleviation Schemes
39	Distributive Justice	Equal Remuneration Act
39A	Free Legal Aid	Lok Adalats / NALSA
40	Gandhian Swaraj	Panchayati Raj (1992)
41	Public Assistance	Old Age Pensions / MGNREGA

Key Insight Fundamental Rights (Part III) provide Political Democracy, while DPSPs (Part IV) aim to achieve Social and Economic Democracy.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (19-January-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 19, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Bullying Tactics: The Greenland-Tariff Nexus

Syllabus Relevance: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests; Global Strategic Geopolitics).

Context: The Trump administration has threatened to impose escalating tariffs on a set of European nations unless the U.S. is allowed to “purchase” Greenland.

The Economic Coercion:

Tariff Escalation: The U.S. plans a 10% tariff on “any and all goods” from targeted European countries beginning February 1, set to increase to 25% by June 1.
Targeted Nations: These include Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
Legal Standing: Unilateral actions lack legislative backing from the U.S. Congress, and a judicial ruling against the use of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act is expected.

Strategic and Diplomatic Fallout:

NATO Resilience: The European Union (EU) is concerned as the move conflates trade policy with territorial coercion, risking a major rupture in the NATO alliance.
EU Counter-Response: European nations may activate an “anti-coercion instrument,” a facility to limit the trade of major U.S. tech firms within the EU.
Geopolitical Impact: A weakened NATO may be less capable of assisting Ukraine against Russian aggression.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Multilateralism under Stress,” “Global Economic Statecraft,” and “Arctic Geopolitics.”

2. Crisis in Education: Systemic Reforms in Higher Education

Syllabus Relevance: GS Paper 2 (Social Justice; Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Education; Governance).

Context: The Supreme Court of India, while hearing a case on student suicides, issued nine specific directions to the Central and State governments to address student distress in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs).

Key Judicial Directives:

Faculty Vacancies: The Court has ordered that vacant faculty positions in both public and private HEIs must be filled within a strict four-month window.
Leadership Appointments: Appointments for Vice-Chancellors and Registrars must be finalized within one month of the post falling vacant.
Tracking Distress: Seven of the nine directives focus on record-keeping and tracking suicides in HEIs separately to understand and mitigate mental health stressors.

Technical Analysis of the Crisis:

Institutional Vacancies: Many public universities across India currently report up to 50% vacancies in faculty positions.
Mental Health Gaps: A National Task Force survey revealed that 65% of institutes do not provide access to mental health service providers.
Academic Stressors: Rigid attendance policies, faculty shortages, and exploitative academic cultures (especially in medical education) were identified as primary mental health triggers.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Human Resource Development,” “Mental Health Policy,” and “Judicial Activism in Education.”

3. Corruption and Prior Sanction: A Divided House

Syllabus Relevance: GS Paper 2 (Governance; Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability; Role of Judiciary).

Context: A two-judge Bench of the Supreme Court delivered a split verdict on the constitutional validity of Section 17A of the Prevention of Corruption (PC) Act, 1988.

Legal Conflict:

Section 17A: Provides that no police officer can conduct an inquiry or investigation into an offence alleged to have been committed by a public servant without the prior sanction of the appropriate government.
The Conflict of Interest: Petitioners argued that vesting the government with the power to stall investigations allows corruption to go unchecked, especially where officials in the same department may have a “meeting of minds”.

Where the Judges Differed:

Justice Nagarathna: Held the section to be unconstitutional as the requirement of prior sanction “forestalls an enquiry” and protects the corrupt, reviving protections previously struck down by the Court.
Justice Viswanathan: Found the provision constitutionally valid provided that the power of approval rests with an independent agency (like the Lokpal) rather than the government, to prevent policy paralysis and frivolous investigations.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Anti-Corruption Framework,” “Separation of Powers,” and “Administrative Law.”

4. Child Trafficking: A Constitutional and Legal Challenge

Syllabus Relevance: GS Paper 2 (Social Justice; Mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of vulnerable sections).

Context: The Supreme Court in the K. P. Kiran Kumar versus State decision provided strict guidelines to prevent child trafficking, noting it violates the fundamental right to life.

Legal Definitions and Framework:

Bhartiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) 2023: Section 143 defines trafficking broadly to include recruitment or receipt of persons by force, fraud, or abuse of power for the purpose of exploitation.
Constitutional Protection: Articles 23 and 24 provide specific protection from human trafficking and forced labor.
Institutional Response: About 400 specialized fast-track courts have been set up exclusively for the POCSO Act.

Technical Statistics:

Rescue vs. Conviction: Between 2018 and 2022, the conviction rate for trafficking offences remained a low 4.8%, despite over 53,000 children being rescued between April 2024 and March 2025.

UPSC Relevance: Key for “Child Rights,” “Human Rights Enforcement,” and “Federal Coordination in Law and Order.”

5. The Physics of Visibility: Meteorological Optical Range

Syllabus Relevance: GS Paper 3 (Science and Technology; Environment: Pollution and Climate).

Context: Amidst severe fog in Delhi, the science behind how “visibility” is actually measured by weather stations.

The Scientific Definition

MOR (Meteorological Optical Range): Visibility is formally defined as the distance a beam of light travels through the atmosphere before its luminous flux (intensity) drops to 5% of its original value.
The Scattering Effect: Visibility decreases because light is reflected or absorbed by water droplets (fog), smoke particles, or dust.

Measurement Techniques

Modern Transmissometers: These use a laser transmitter and a receiver separated by a fixed distance (usually 20-75 meters). The receiver calculates exactly how much light “made it across” to determine the MOR.
Forward Scatter Sensors: These project a beam past a receiver. In clear air, the receiver sees nothing. If particles are present, they scatter the light into the receiver. The amount of scattered light is then mathematically converted into a visibility distance.

Pollution Connection

Smog Intensity: The IMD classifies visibility based on smog (smoke + fog). In Delhi, on the day of publication, visibility dropped to “Poor” (50-200m).

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Scientific Principles in Meteorology” and “Infrastructure Challenges (Aviation and Railways) during Winter.”

Editorial Analysis

Jan 19, 2026

GS-2 IR

🇬🇱 Greenland & Economic Coercion

U.S. administration leverages 10% – 25% Tariffs as a tool for territorial purchase. Impact: Conflating trade policy with territorial sovereignty threatens NATO’s core alliance. EU prepares Anti-Coercion Instruments against U.S. tech firms.

GS-2 Edu

🎓 HEIs: Supreme Court Suicidal Directives

SC issues nine mandates to combat student distress. Key orders: Fill faculty vacancies within 4 Months and finalize VC appointments in 1 Month. Focus: Transitioning from rigid attendance to a Mental Health Supportive Ecosystem.

GS-2 Gov.

⚖️ Corruption Law: The Sec 17A Split

Supreme Court delivers split verdict on “Prior Sanction” requirement for investigating public servants. Debate: Whether Section 17A forestalls enquiries (Justice Nagarathna) or prevents policy paralysis (Justice Viswanathan).

GS-2 Social

🧒 Child Trafficking: Conviction Deficit

Despite 53,000+ rescues in 2024-25, conviction rates remain stagnant at 4.8%. Legal shift: Bhartiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) Section 143 broadens the definition of exploitation to improve judicial outcomes.

GS-3 S&T

🌫️ Fog Science: Meteorological Optical Range

Visibility measured by “MOR”—the distance light travels before intensity drops to 5%. Technology: Transmissometers and Forward Scatter Sensors calculate luminous flux to manage aviation/railway safety during smog episodes.

Mapping:

Today’s mapping notes focus on Major Meteorological and Natural Hazard Zones.

1. Rainfall Distribution and Isohyets

Mapping rainfall is crucial for understanding agricultural productivity and water management.

Heavy Rainfall Zones (>200 cm):
- Western Ghats: Windward slopes receiving orographic rainfall.
- North-East India: Including Mawsynram and Cherrapunji (Khasi Hills).
Moderate Rainfall Zones (100–200 cm):
- Gangetic Plains: Bihar, West Bengal, and Odisha.
Low Rainfall Zones (<50 cm):
- Western Rajasthan: The Thar Desert region.
- Leh/Ladakh: The high-altitude cold desert.
- Rain-shadow area: The interior Deccan Plateau (Marathwada, Rayalaseema).

2. Cyclones and Coastal Vulnerability

India’s long coastline is divided into distinct zones based on the frequency and intensity of cyclonic disturbances.

Coast	Vulnerability Level	High-Risk Districts/Points
East Coast	Very High	Odisha (Paradip, Puri), Andhra Pradesh (Visakhapatnam), West Bengal (Sundarbans).
West Coast	Moderate	Gujarat (Kutch, Saurashtra), Maharashtra (Mumbai, Alibaug).

3. Flood and Drought Prone Areas

Mapping these hazards is a core requirement for disaster management studies.

Flood-Prone Regions:
- Brahmaputra Basin: Assam Valley (frequent course changes of the river).
- Gangetic Basin: North Bihar (Kosi — the “Sorrow of Bihar”) and Eastern UP.
- Coastal Deltas: Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna deltas during monsoons.
Drought-Prone Regions:
- Arid West: Western Rajasthan and Kutch.
- Semi-Arid Deccan: Areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh that fall in the rain-shadow of the Western Ghats.

4. Seismic Zones (Structural Mapping)

As discussed earlier, the 2026 updates have redefined the risk levels.

Zone V (Very High Risk): Entire North-Eastern India, parts of J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Rann of Kutch, and North Bihar.
Zone IV (High Risk): Remaining parts of J&K and Himachal, Delhi, and the Gangetic plain.

Summary Mapping Checklist

Hazard	Mapping Highlight	Geographic Focus
Wettest Place	Mawsynram	Meghalaya (East India).
Sorrow of Bihar	Kosi River	North Bihar.
Rain Shadow Zone	Marathwada	Interior Maharashtra.
Cyclone Hotspot	Bay of Bengal	East Coast of India.

Hazard Landscapes

Meteorology

🌧️ Isohyets & Rainfall

Distribution ranges from the heavy >200cm rainfall in Mawsynram and the Western Ghats to the low <50cm arid zones of the Thar and Leh-Ladakh cold deserts.

Mission: Locate the Rain-shadow zones of the interior Deccan (Marathwada/Rayalaseema) on your map.

Marine Risk

🌀 Cyclonic Vulnerability

The Very High Risk East Coast (Odisha, Bengal) faces frequent Bay of Bengal disturbances, while the West Coast remains Moderately Vulnerable.

Mission: Find the high-risk ports of Paradip and Visakhapatnam to understand coastal defense geography.

Structural Risk

⚠️ Seismic & Flood Zones

Mapping geological instability involves identifying Seismic Zone V (NE India, Rann of Kutch) and flood-prone basins like the Sorrow of Bihar (Kosi River).

Risk Zone	Geographic Focus	Primary Hazard
Zone V	NE India, Uttarakhand, Kutch	Highest Intensity Quakes
Assam Valley	Brahmaputra Basin	Frequent Course Changes/Floods
Arid West	Rajasthan, North Gujarat	Chronic Agricultural Drought

Hazard Summary Checklist

Hazard	Mapping Highlight	Geographic Location
Wettest Place	Mawsynram	Meghalaya (Khasi Hills)
Sorrow of Bihar	Kosi River	North Bihar Delta
Rain Shadow	Marathwada	Interior Maharashtra
Cyclone Hotspot	Bay of Bengal	East Coast of India

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 17 Jan 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-3 (The Delhi Sultans)

This chapter, “The Delhi Sultans,” details the transformation of Delhi into a powerful capital and the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate from the 12th to the 15th centuries.

1. Delhi as a Capital

Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who were defeated by the Chauhans of Ajmer in the mid-12th century.

Commercial Centre: Under the Tomaras and Chauhans, Delhi became an important commercial hub.
Dehliwal: Rich Jaina merchants in the city constructed temples and minted coins called dehliwal, which had a wide circulation.
The Sultanate: The foundation of the Delhi Sultanate in the early 13th century marked the start of Delhi’s control over vast areas of the subcontinent. The Sultans built several cities in the area, such as Dehli-i Kuhna, Siri, and Jahanpanah.

2. Finding Out About the Delhi Sultans

Historians rely on inscriptions, coins, and architecture, but especially valuable are tawarikh (singular: tarikh), which are histories written in Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.

Authors of Tawarikh: These were learned men—secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers—who lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and rarely in villages.
Advice to Rulers: They often wrote for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards and advised them on the need to preserve an “ideal” social order based on birthright and gender distinctions.
Raziyya Sultan: In 1236, Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya, became Sultan. Although more able than her brothers, she was removed from the throne in 1240 because the nobles were uncomfortable with a woman ruler.

3. Expansion of the Sultanate

The Sultanate’s control expanded through two main types of frontiers:

The Internal Frontier: Campaigns aimed at consolidating the hinterlands of the garrison towns (fortified settlements with soldiers). This involved clearing forests in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and expelling hunter-gatherers and pastoralists to promote agriculture.
The External Frontier: Military expeditions into southern India started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and reached their farthest extent under Muhammad Tughluq. These armies captured elephants, horses, and slaves and looted precious metals.

4. Administration and Consolidation

To consolidate such a vast kingdom, rulers needed reliable governors and administrators.

Bandagan: Early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, favoured special slaves purchased for military service, called bandagan in Persian. They were trained for important political offices and were totally dependent on their master.
Iqta System: The Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders as governors of territories called iqtas.
Muqtis: The holders of these iqtas were called muqtis or iqtadars. Their duty was to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas. In return, they collected the revenues of their assignments as salary.
Control over Muqtis: To prevent muqtis from becoming too powerful, the office was not made hereditary, and they were assigned iqtas for short periods. Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of revenue they collected.

5. Challenges and Invasions

Local Chieftains: Sultans like Alauddin Khalji forced local chieftains and Mongol invaders to accept their authority and pay taxes. The state brought the assessment and collection of land revenue under its own control.
Mongol Invasions: The Delhi Sultanate faced increased Mongol attacks from Afghanistan during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.
- Alauddin Khalji focused on a defensive posture, building a new garrison town (Siri) and maintaining a large standing army.
- Muhammad Tughluq planned an offensive, raising a huge army to attack Transoxiana, but his administrative measures, like shifting the capital to Daulatabad and introducing a “token” currency, were largely failures.

6. The Sultanate in the 15th and 16th Centuries

After the Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526.

New Kingdoms: By this time, independent rulers established powerful states in Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and South India.
Sher Shah Suri: Starting as a manager for a small territory, he eventually challenged and defeated the Mughal Emperor Humayun. Although the Suri dynasty ruled for only 15 years, its administration became a model followed by the great Emperor Akbar.

🕌 The Delhi Sultans (12th-15th C.)

📜 Records & Tawarikh

Histories written in Persian (Tawarikh) provide vital data. A notable figure was Raziyya Sultan (1236), the first woman ruler, removed because nobles were uncomfortable with her authority.

🏹 Military Expansion

Expansion occurred on two fronts: the Internal (clearing forests for agriculture) and the External (military raids into South India by Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq).

⚖️ Administration

Sultans used Bandagan (military slaves) and the Iqta System. Governors, known as Muqtis, collected revenue from their land assignments to maintain troops.

🐎 Mongol Challenges

To face Mongol raids, Alauddin Khalji built the garrison town of Siri. Muhammad Tughluq attempted a “token” currency and shifted the capital to Daulatabad, which were largely unsuccessful.

Suri Dynasty Sher Shah Suri defeated Emperor Humayun and established an administrative model that was later perfected by Akbar.

📂

Class-7 History Chapter-3 PDF

Complete Study Notes: The Delhi Sultans

Download Now

⚖️Indian Polity: Fundamental Rights (Articles 12–35)

Fundamental Rights are enshrined in Part III of the Constitution. They are often called the Magna Carta of India. They represent the essential conditions for the material and moral protection of citizens. These rights are justiciable, meaning they can be enforced by the courts.

1. General Provisions (Articles 12 & 13)

Article 12: Definition of “State”

To enforce Fundamental Rights, one must know who is accountable. Article 12 defines the “State” to include:

Legislative & Executive Organs of the Union: Parliament, Ministries, President.
Legislative & Executive Organs of States: Vidhan Sabha, Governor.
Local Authorities: Municipalities, Panchayats.
Other Authorities: Statutory and non-statutory bodies like LIC, ONGC, and SAIL.
- Landmark Case: Ajay Hasia v. Khalid Mujib established the “Instrumentality Test” to determine if a body is a State agency.

Article 13: Laws Inconsistent with Fundamental Rights

This article gives the Judiciary the power of Judicial Review.

Art 13(1): Pre-constitutional laws that violate rights become void (Doctrine of Eclipse).
Art 13(2): The State shall not make any law that takes away or abridges Fundamental Rights (Doctrine of Severability).
Art 13(3): Defines “Law” broadly to include ordinances, orders, bye-laws, rules, regulations, notifications, and customs.

2. Right to Equality (Articles 14–18)

Article 14: Equality Before Law

Equality before Law: No one is above the law (British concept).
Equal Protection of Laws: Like should be treated alike (American concept).
Reasonable Classification: Laws can treat different groups differently if the classification is rational and not arbitrary.

Article 15: Prohibition of Discrimination

The State cannot discriminate against any citizen only on grounds of Religion, Race, Caste, Sex, or Place of Birth.
Exceptions: Special provisions for women, children, SC/ST, and OBCs are allowed for social advancement.

Article 16: Equality in Public Employment

Ensures equal opportunity for all citizens in government jobs.
Exceptions: Allows for Reservations in favor of any backward class that is not adequately represented in State services.

Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability

Untouchability is abolished, and its practice in any form is a punishable offense. This is an Absolute Right.

Article 18: Abolition of Titles

The State cannot confer any title (except military or academic distinctions).
Indian citizens cannot accept titles from foreign states.
Note: National Awards (Bharat Ratna, etc.) are valid but cannot be used as prefixes/suffixes.

3. Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22)

Article 19: Protection of 6 Freedoms

Speech and Expression (Includes freedom of the press).
Assembly (Peaceful and without arms).
Association (Includes forming unions and co-operative societies).
Movement (Throughout the territory of India).
Residence (To reside and settle in any part of India).
Profession (To practice any occupation or trade).

Note: These are subject to Reasonable Restrictions (Security of state, public order, etc.).

Article 20: Protection in Respect of Conviction

Ex-Post-Facto Law: You can’t be punished for an act that wasn’t a crime when you did it.
Double Jeopardy: You can’t be punished for the same offense more than once.
Self-Incrimination: You can’t be forced to be a witness against yourself.

Article 21: Right to Life and Personal Liberty

No person shall be deprived of life or liberty except according to the procedure established by law.
Expanded Scope: Includes rights to privacy, clean environment, health, and a speedy trial.
Article 21A: Right to free and compulsory education for children (6–14 years).

Article 22: Protection Against Arrest and Detention

Punitive Detention: Arrested persons must be told why, allowed to consult a lawyer, and produced before a Magistrate within 24 hours.
Preventive Detention: Detention without trial to prevent a future crime (max 3 months without Advisory Board review).

4. Protection Against Exploitation (Articles 23–24)

Article 23: Prohibition of Forced Labor

Prohibits human trafficking, Begar (unpaid labor), and other forms of forced labor.

Article 24: Prohibition of Child Labor

Prohibits employment of children under 14 years in factories, mines, or any hazardous employment.

5. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28)

Article 25: Individual right to profess, practice, and propagate religion.
Article 26: Right of religious denominations to manage their own affairs and property.
Article 27: No person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of any particular religion.
Article 28: Prohibits religious instruction in educational institutions wholly maintained by State funds.

6. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30)

Article 29: Protection of the distinct language, script, or culture of any section of citizens (Minorities).
Article 30: Right of religious and linguistic minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Article 31: Repealed (Right to Property moved to Article 300A).

7. Articles 32–35

Article 32: Right to Constitutional Remedies

The “Heart and Soul” of the Constitution. It allows you to go directly to the Supreme Court. and allows the Supreme Court to issue Writs:

Habeas Corpus (To produce the body)
Mandamus (To command performance)
Prohibition (To stop a lower court)
Certiorari (To quash an order)
Quo-Warranto (To challenge a public office claim)

Articles 33, 34, & 35

Article 35: Only the Parliament has the power to make laws to give effect to Fundamental Rights (State legislatures cannot).
Article 33: Parliament can restrict the rights of Armed Forces/Police to ensure discipline.
Article 34: Rights can be restricted while Martial Law is in force.

Revision Summary Table

Cluster	Articles	Key Essence
Equality	14–18	Social and Legal fairness.
Freedom	19–22	Individual Liberty and Protection.
Exploitation	23–24	Human Dignity.
Religion	25–28	Secularism and Belief.
Education	29–30	Minority Identity.
Remedies	32–35	Judicial Protection (The Heart & Soul).

Short-tricks to remember Articles 12-35

To memorize Articles 12 to 35, you can use a mix of Hindi and English mnemonics. These “short-tricks” help link the article number to a keyword, making them perfect for your website’s “Exam Hack” section.

Trick 1: The “Hinglish” Rhyme (Art 14–24)

This is a popular method to remember the sequence using catchy Hindi phrases.

12-13 (Intro): 12 State ki definition, 13 Law ka correction.
14-18 (Equality): Sab barabar (14), No bhedbhav (15), Job ka mauka (16), Chhuachhoot khatam (17), Title hatam (18).
19-22 (Freedom): 19 Bola, 20 Bach gaya (Conviction), 21 Jeeya (Life), 22 Reha hua (Arrest).
23-24 (Exploitation): 23 Badi trafficking, 24 Chhote bachche (Child Labor).

Trick 2: The “E-DOUT” Acronym (Right to Equality)

This helps you memorize the specific order of the first cluster (Articles 14–18).

E — D — O — U — T

E – Equality before law (Art 14)
D – Prohibition of Discrimination (Art 15)
O – Opportunity in Public Employment (Art 16)
U – Abolition of Untouchability (Art 17)
T – Abolition of Titles (Art 18)

Trick 3: The “S-OLEA” Acronym (Freedom Cluster)

For the six freedoms under Article 19(1), remember this name: S-OLEA.

S – Speech and Expression
O – Organize / Assemble (Assembly)
L – League / Association (Associations)
E – Everywhere Movement (Movement)
A – Anywhere Residence (Residence)
(Note: The ‘P’ for Profession completes the list)

Trick 4: Religion & Education (Art 25–30)

Use a short story about a Minority School.

25-28 (Religion): “Believe (25), Manage (26), No Tax (27), No Prayer pressure (28).”
29-30 (Minority): “Save Culture (29), Open School (30).”

Trick 5: The Legal Remedies (Art 32–35)

Think of “The Court’s Call”.

32: The Doctor (Remedies – “Heart & Soul”)
33: The Soldier (Armed Forces limits)
34: The Marshal (Martial Law)
35: The Parliament (Power to make laws for FRs)

Master Cheat Sheet

Article Range	Mnemonic Key	Theme
14–18	E-DOUT	Equality
19	S-OLEA	6 Freedoms
23–24	Big vs Small	Exploitation
25–28	Pray & Manage	Religion
32	The Remedy	Writs

🇮🇳 Fundamental Rights (Part III)

🏛️ Article 12: Defining State

Identifies entities accountable for FRs: Union/State Govts, Local Authorities, and statutory bodies like LIC, ONGC, SAIL.

🛡️ Article 13: Judicial Review

The “Shield”. Invalidates laws that clash with FRs. Includes Doctrine of Eclipse (pre-consti) and Severability (post-consti).

Pro Tip Fundamental Rights are called the Magna Carta of India because they are justiciable and protect material/moral interests.

⚖️ Equality (14–18)

Includes Art 14 (Equality before Law), Art 15 (Non-discrimination), Art 17 (Abolition of Untouchability), and Art 18 (No Titles).

🗽 Freedom (19–22)

Art 19 covers 6 Freedoms. 20: Accused Rights. Art 21 is the Right to Life, and Art 21A ensures Free Education (6–14 years). 22: Protection against Arrest.

🛑 Protection Against Exploitation (23–24)

Prohibits Art 23 (Human Trafficking/Forced Labour) and Art 24 (Child Labour in hazardous work for those under 14).

🕌 Religious Freedom (25–28)

Guarantees individual faith (Art 25), group management (Art 26), and prevents religious taxes (Art 27).

🎨 Minority Rights (29–30)

Art 29 protects distinct language/culture. Art 30 allows minorities to manage their own educational institutions.

🏥 Remedies (32–35)

Art 32 allows direct SC access via Writs. Art 33-35 empowers Parliament to modify rights for Armed Forces or Martial Law.

Cluster	Articles	Key Essence
Equality	14–18	Social and Legal fairness.
Freedom	19–22	Individual Liberty & Protection.
Religion	25–28	Secularism and Belief.
Remedies	32–35	The “Heart & Soul”.

🧠 Exam Hacks & Mnemonics

🇮🇳 Hinglish Rhyme (12-24)

12-13: Definition & Correction.
14-18: Sab barabar, Job mauka, Chhuachhoot khatam!
19: Freedom Bola
20: Bach gaya (Conviction)
21: Jeeya (Life)
22: Reha hua (Arrest)

🔠 Acronym: E-DOUT (Equality)

Equality (14)
Discrimination (15)
Opportunity (16)
Untouchability (17)
Titles (18)

📢 Acronym: S-OLEA (Freedom)

Speech, Organize (Assembly), League (Association), Everywhere (Movement), Anywhere (Residence).

🏫 Minority School (25-30)

Believe (25), Manage (26), No Tax (27), No Pressure (28), Save Culture (29), Open School (30).

⚖️ The Court’s Call (32-35)

32: The Doctor (Remedy)
33: The Soldier (Force)
34: The Marshal (Army Law)
35: The Parliament (Power)

Cheat Sheet Cluster: 14-18 (E-DOUT) | Freedom: 19 (S-OLEA) | Exploitation: 23-24 (Big vs Small) | Remedy: 32 (Writs) Pro Tip Articles 20 and 21 are the only Fundamental Rights that cannot be suspended even during a National Emergency.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (17-January-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 17, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. On Mute: India’s Strategic Autonomy Under Strain

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests; Bilateral relations).

Context: A critical analysis of India’s “muted” responses to recent aggressive and unilateral geopolitical actions taken by the Trump administration, particularly concerning Iran and Venezuela.

Key Points:

Geopolitical Turmoil: The editorial highlights a series of disruptive U.S. actions: the seizure of the Venezuelan President, threats of regime change in South America, plans to annex Greenland, and a proposed law for 500% tariffs on Russian oil and uranium.
The Iran Pressure: The U.S. is reportedly pushing India to wind up operations at Chabahar Port, where India has invested billions, and has threatened a 25% extra tariff on any country trading with Iran.
New Delhi’s Stance: India’s response has been described as “weak” or “muted.” While the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) expressed “deep concern” over Venezuela, it avoided naming the U.S. for its overreach or violations of international law.
Strategic Motivation: Officials may argue that speaking up risks another downturn in ties just as there is hope for an India-U.S. Bilateral Trade Agreement and India’s inclusion in the “Pax Silica” high-tech partnership next month.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for questions on “Strategic Autonomy,” “India-U.S. Relations,” and “West Asian Geopolitics.”

Detailed Analysis:

lesson of 2019: The editorial warns that India’s decision in 2019 to stop buying Iranian and Venezuelan oil under U.S. pressure should serve as a “signal lesson”: appeasement cannot ensure national interests.
Reputational Risk: As India prepares to host the BRICS Summit, its silence on international law violations could hurt its reputation among Global South partners.
Economic Impact: Every new U.S. threat and tariff is directly hurting ordinary Indians and the domestic economy, making an assertion of strategic autonomy a necessity rather than an option.

2. The Congress at 140: A Crisis of Structure

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Polity; Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act; Important aspects of governance).

Context: Following its 140th anniversary on December 28, 2025, the Indian National Congress is analyzed for its long-standing institutional erosion and structural decline.

Key Points:

Structural Roots of Decline: The author (Zoya Hasan) argues that treating the Congress and the BJP as comparable parties is a mistake. The BJP is anchored by the RSS, a dense ideological and external cadre base that replenishes leadership independent of election cycles.
Organisational Erosion: Over decades, the Congress has moved from a robust grass-roots organization to one marked by the concentration of authority at the apex, leading to a thinning of local leadership.
The Paradox of Openness: Unlike other parties, the Congress tolerates internal dissent (e.g., the G-23), but this openness is a “double-edged phenomenon” that often translates into perceptions of factionalism and indecision.
Weak Internal Democratisation: The core problem is identified as a failure to create institutional pathways for new voices or nurture state-level leadership.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Political Parties and Governance,” “Internal Democracy in Political Institutions,” and “Challenges to the Opposition.”

Detailed Analysis:

Myth of Decentralisation: While the BJP maintains tight central control over its state units, the Congress often allows decentralised management (as seen in the 2023 Karnataka polls). However, this lack of structure becomes a liability against the BJP’s “formidable political machine”.
Entrenched Roadblocks: Rahul Gandhi’s efforts to reform the party have often been stalled by senior leaders who benefit from the status quo while publicly decrying organizational attrition.
Path Forward: The editorial suggests the Congress needs a revitalised party structure driven by a “radical progressive vision” and socially embedded leaders rather than just episodic mobilization.

3. Budget 2026-27: Sustaining Growth Momentum

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Mobilization of resources; Growth and development).

Context: Recommendations from FICCI Director General Jyoti Vij on how the upcoming Union Budget can strengthen domestic levers of growth amidst global headwinds.

Key Points:

Defence as a Driver: The budget should enhance the share of capital outlay in defence to 30% (up from 26.4%) and increase the DRDO’s allocation by at least ₹10,000 crore.
Strategic Mineral Security: The National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) needs a dedicated tailings recovery programme and financing to secure materials for electric mobility and semiconductors.
Export Competitiveness: To offset global challenges, the allocation for the RoDTEP scheme (Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products) needs a significant raise.
Drone Ecosystem: The government should consider a ₹1,000 crore drone R&D fund to accelerate global competitiveness.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Economic Planning,” “Defence Indigenization,” and “Industrial Policy.”

Detailed Analysis:

Tax Dispute Resolution: The editorial advocates for a dual-track disposal system for tax disputes—fast-tracking simple cases while dedicating a detailed track for complex, high-value matters.
Deepening Bond Markets: To diversify credit beyond banks, the government should lower borrowing thresholds and allow provident funds to invest in infrastructure and real estate investment trusts.
Customs Reform: Continued reduction in customs tariff slabs is needed to address inverted duties that hurt domestic manufacturing competitiveness.

4. A Climate of Fear: The Jharkhand Tusker Rampage

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Environment; Conservation; Human-Wildlife Conflict).

Context: A detailed report on a single-tusked male elephant that has killed at least 20 people in Jharkhand’s West Singhbhum district between January 1 and 9, 2026.

Key Points:

Scale of Conflict: The attacks have primarily occurred at night, leading to widespread panic and the displacement of villagers who now sleep in groups or on higher ground.
Habitat Degradation: A Wildlife Institute of India (WII) study links the rise in fatalities to the degradation of elephant habitats caused by intense iron ore mining in the Saranda forest.
Fragmented Landscapes: Jharkhand’s elephant population has plummeted from 678 in 2017 to just 217 today, with survivors confined to fragmented areas that cannot meet their dietary needs.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Human-Wildlife Conflict,” “Environmental Impact Assessment of Mining,” and “Biodiversity Conservation.”

Detailed Analysis:

Behavior of Loner Elephants: Experts note that male “loners” become more aggressive when separated from their herd and instigated by human activities.
Systemic Apathy: At least 1,270 people have died in elephant attacks in Jharkhand over the last 18 years, highlighting a recurring failure in conflict management.
Inadequate Compensation: Families of victims are urging the government to increase the compensation from ₹4 lakh to ₹10 lakh and provide government jobs to survivors.

5. The First Cut is the Deepest: Electoral Roll Revision

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Electoral Reforms; Constitutional Bodies; Citizenship).

Context: Uttar Pradesh has seen the largest deletion of voters—2.89 crore (18.7% of total)—during the first draft of the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls.

Key Points:

Urban Impact: Deletions are most severe in urban areas like Lucknow (30%) and Ghaziabad (28%), often involving people who migrated for work but owned property in their native places.
The “Citizenship Bogey”: The revision has raised concerns about citizenship, especially for those who cannot be “mapped” to the 2003 rolls and must now produce mandated documents at hearings.
Systemic Flaws: Voters complain that while the Election Commission (EC) accepts Form 8 for entry corrections, it does not accept it for “change of residence,” forcing families to register as fresh voters and delete old records.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Electoral Integrity,” “Rights of Migrant Workers,” and “Role of the Election Commission.”

Detailed Analysis:

Offence of Duplication: Under new rules, attempting to register in two places is an offence that can lead to an FIR, forcing many migrant workers to choose between their work location and ancestral village.
Documentary Challenges: Residents in towns like Deoband report that community leaders and NGOs have set up special camps to help people link their names to 2003 lists and navigate the complex paperwork.
Hearing Backlog: With hearings starting on January 15-16, additional Assistant Electoral Registration Officers (AERO) have been deputed, each expected to conduct 50 hearings a day.

Quick Value Addition (Prelims):

Insurrection Act: U.S. President Trump has threatened to invoke this 19th-century law to deploy the military domestically against mass protests.
Seeds Bill: A historic piece of legislation aimed at seed quality and transparency (via QR codes) is likely to be tabled in the upcoming Budget Session.
SPREE Scheme: The “Scheme to Promote Registration of Employers/Employees” has extended the social security net (ESIC) to over 1.03 crore new workers.
Jallikattu Events: Major traditional bull-taming events began in Tamil Nadu (Palamedu) and Andhra Pradesh (Pullaiahgaripalle) coinciding with Pongal.
Irina Krush: The only American woman to become a Chess Grandmaster, currently a commentator, recalls her start in international chess in Kozhikode, India.

Editorial Analysis

Jan 17, 2026

GS-2 IR

🇮🇳 Strategic Autonomy: The Price of Silence

India’s “muted” response to U.S. unilateralism (Venezuela/Iran) risks its Global South reputation. Key concern: U.S. pressure to wind up Chabahar Port operations. Lesson: Silence on international law violations may secure “Pax Silica” inclusion but erodes Strategic Independence.

GS-2 Polity

🏛️ The Congress at 140: Structural Gaps

Analysis of institutional erosion vs. the BJP’s RSS-cadre model. Key issue: Thinning local leadership and the Paradox of Openness (factionalism). Path forward: Moving from episodic mobilization to a socially embedded, Internally Democratic party structure.

GS-3 Economy

📉 Budget 2026-27: FICCI Blueprint

Recommendations include raising Defense Capital Outlay to 30% and establishing a ₹1,000 Cr Drone R&D Fund. Focus on “Tailings Recovery” for critical minerals and a dual-track tax dispute resolution to stabilize domestic growth levers.

GS-3 Environ.

🐘 Tusker Rampage: Habitat Fragmentation

Elephant killings in Jharkhand linked to Iron Ore Mining in the Saranda forest. Data: Elephant population crashed from 678 (2017) to 217 (2025). Forced habitat fragmentation turns male “loners” into aggressive threats to villagers.

GS-2 Governance

🗳️ SIR: Urban Deletion Crisis

UP records 2.89 Crore deletions (18.7% of total) in electoral rolls. Urban hotspots like Lucknow (30%) hit hardest. Conflict: New rules treat dual registration as an offense, forcing Migrant Workers to choose between city work and ancestral roots.

Quick Value Addition: • Insurrection Act: US 19th-century law for domestic military deployment. • Seeds Bill: Focus on QR-code transparency for seed quality. • SPREE Scheme: Expanded ESIC net to 1.03 Cr new workers.

Mapping:

Today’s mapping notes focus on India’s Major Waterfalls, Island Geography, and Natural Hazards (Flood & Drought Prone Zones).

1. Major Waterfalls of India

Waterfalls in India are primarily concentrated in the Western Ghats and the Chhota Nagpur Plateau due to the steep gradients and hard rock structures.

Waterfall	River	State	Key Feature
Kunchikal Falls	Varahi	Karnataka	The highest tiered waterfall in India.
Jog Falls	Sharavati	Karnataka	One of the highest untiered waterfalls; famous for four distinct cascades (Raja, Rani, Roarer, Rocket).
Dudhsagar Falls	Mandovi	Goa	Known as the “Sea of Milk”; located on the Goa-Karnataka border.
Shivasamudram	Kaveri	Karnataka	Site of one of the first hydro-electric power stations in Asia.
Hundru Falls	Subarnarekha	Jharkhand	A famous “knick-point” fall in the mineral-rich Chhota Nagpur Plateau.

2. Detailed Island Mapping

India’s islands are not just scenic spots but strategic military and ecological assets.

Andaman & Nicobar (Volcanic Origin):
- Saddle Peak: The highest point in the North Andaman.
- Indira Point: The southernmost point of India’s territory (Great Nicobar).
- Duncan Passage: A strategic strait separating South Andaman from Little Andaman.
Lakshadweep (Coral Origin):
- Kavaratti: The administrative capital.
- Pitti Island: An uninhabited island that serves as a dedicated Bird Sanctuary.
- Andrott: The largest island in the Lakshadweep group.

3. Natural Hazards: Flood and Drought Zones

Mapping these zones is essential for disaster preparedness in 2026.

Flood-Prone Zones:
- Brahmaputra Basin: Assam is highly vulnerable due to heavy rainfall and the river’s tendency to change course.
- Gangetic Plains: Northern Bihar (Kosi River – “Sorrow of Bihar”) and West Bengal.
- Coastal Deltas: Odisha and Andhra Pradesh during the cyclone season.
Drought-Prone Zones:
- Rain Shadow Region: The area east of the Western Ghats (Marathwada in Maharashtra, North Karnataka).
- Arid West: Western Rajasthan and the Kutch region of Gujarat.
- Kala-Handi Belt: Parts of Odisha that experience frequent rainfall failure despite being in the east.

Summary Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Key Location
Highest Waterfall	Kunchikal Falls	Karnataka
Southernmost Point	Indira Point	Great Nicobar
Sorrow of Bihar	Kosi River	North Bihar
Active Volcano	Barren Island	Andaman Sea

Cascades & Coasts

Hydrology

💧 Liquid Descents

Major falls are concentrated in the steep Western Ghats and the hard rocks of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. These range from the tiered Kunchikal to the scenic Dudhsagar.

Waterfall	River	Highlight
Jog Falls	Sharavati	Four distinct cascades (Raja, Rani, etc)
Dudhsagar	Mandovi	“Sea of Milk” at Goa-KA border
Hundru Falls	Subarnarekha	Critical “knick-point” in Jharkhand

Mission: Locate Shivasamudram on the Kaveri river and identify its historical significance in Asia’s hydro-power history.

Archipelagos

🏝️ Strategic Geography

India’s islands serve as strategic military and ecological assets. Mapping includes the volcanic Andaman & Nicobar and the coral-rich atolls of Lakshadweep.

Mission: Find Indira Point (Great Nicobar) and the Duncan Passage to understand India’s southern maritime boundaries.

Risk Mapping

⚠️ Hazard Prone Zones

Environmental risk management involves tracking the Flood-Prone Brahmaputra and Kosi basins, and the Drought-Prone Rain Shadow regions of the Deccan.

Mission: Identify the “Kala-Handi Belt” in Odisha and investigate why it suffers rainfall failure despite its proximity to the coast.

Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Key Location
Highest Waterfall	Kunchikal Falls	Karnataka
Southernmost Point	Indira Point	Great Nicobar
Sorrow of Bihar	Kosi River	North Bihar
Bird Sanctuary	Pitti Island	Lakshadweep

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 16 Jan 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-2 (New Kings and Kingdoms)

Chapter 2, “New Kings and Kingdoms,” examines the emergence of powerful dynasties in the Indian subcontinent between the seventh and twelfth centuries.

1. The Emergence of New Dynasties

By the seventh century, big landlords or warrior chiefs, known as samantas, existed in different regions.

Samantas were expected to bring gifts for their kings, be present in their courts, and provide military support.
As samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta or maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a “circle” or region).
Some samantas asserted independence from their overlords. For example, the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan were initially subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (“the golden womb”) to be “reborn” as a kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.
Men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms, such as the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra, who gave up their traditional priestly professions to take up arms.

2. Administration in the Kingdoms

New kings often adopted high-sounding titles such as Maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings) and Tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds).

Resource Collection: Kings shared power with samantas as well as associations of peasants, traders, and brahmans.
Producers: Resources were obtained from peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans, who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced as “rent”.
Revenue: In the Chola empire, inscriptions mention over 400 terms for different kinds of taxes, such as vetti (forced labour) and kadamai (land revenue).
Usage of Wealth: These resources financed the king’s establishment, built temples and forts, and funded wars.
Officials: Revenue collection positions were often hereditary and held by powerful families or close relatives of the king.

3. Prashastis and Land Grants

Prashastis contained glowing, often exaggerated accounts of rulers, depicting them as valiant, victorious warriors.

They were composed by learned brahmans who occasionally helped in the administration.
Kings rewarded brahmans with grants of land, which were recorded on copper plates.
A unique source for the history of Kashmir is a long Sanskrit poem by Kalhana (12th century), who used inscriptions, documents, and eyewitness accounts to provide a critical view of rulers and their policies.

4. Warfare for Wealth

Dynasties often fought for control over specific prized areas.

Tripartite Struggle: For centuries, rulers from the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj in the Ganga valley.
Temple Targets: Rulers built large temples to demonstrate power; consequently, these temples were often the first targets during invasions.
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni: From 997 to 1030 CE, he raided the subcontinent 17 times, targeting wealthy temples like Somnath in Gujarat. He used the looted wealth to create a splendid capital at Ghazni.
Al-Biruni: Mahmud entrusted the scholar Al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent, known as the Kitab-ul-Hind.
Chahamanas (Chauhans): They ruled over Delhi and Ajmer. Their most famous ruler was Prithviraja III (1168–1192), who defeated Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 but lost to him the following year.

5. A Closer Look: The Cholas

The Cholas rose to power in the south, moving from a small family of subordinates to a major empire.

Rise to Power: Vijayalaya, from the ancient family of Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century.
Rajaraja I: Considered the most powerful Chola ruler, he became king in 985 CE and expanded control over most of the region. His son, Rajendra I, continued these policies, raiding the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.
Splendid Temples: The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram were architectural and sculptural marvels. Chola temples were not just places of worship but hubs of economic, social, and cultural life.
Bronze Sculpture: Chola bronze images, mostly of deities and sometimes devotees, are considered among the finest in the world.

Agriculture and Irrigation

The river Kaveri branches into small channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal; these channels provide fertile silt and moisture for agriculture, particularly rice.
Large-scale agriculture developed in the fifth or sixth centuries as forests were cleared and land was levelled.
Irrigation: Embankments were built to prevent flooding, and canals were constructed to carry water to fields. Methods included digging wells and constructing huge tanks to collect rainwater.

Administration of the Empire

Ur: Settlements of peasants became prosperous with the spread of irrigation.
Nadu: Groups of villages formed larger units called nadu, which performed administrative functions like dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
Vellanvaga: Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government.
Brahmadeya: Brahmans received land grants, leading to the emergence of numerous brahman settlements in the Kaveri valley.
Sabha: Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent brahman landholders.
- The Uttaramerur inscription details how the sabha was organized into committees (for irrigation, temples, gardens, etc.).
- Members were chosen by lottery: names were written on palm leaf tickets, put into an earthenware pot, and picked out by a young boy.

🏰 New Kings & Kingdoms (7th-12th C.)

👑 Rise of Samantas

Warrior chiefs called Samantas gained power to become Maha-mandaleshvaras. Dantidurga performed the Hiranya-garbha ritual to become a Kshatriya and founded the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

⚔️ Warfare for Wealth

The Tripartite Struggle involved the Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas fighting for Kanauj. Meanwhile, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni raided temples like Somnath to fund his capital.

🪷 The Chola Splendour

Founded by Vijayalaya; expanded by Rajaraja I. Famous for Thanjavur temple and exquisite Bronze Sculptures. Rivers like the Kaveri were utilized for highly advanced paddy irrigation.

🗳️ Village Democracy

Chola villages were managed by the Sabha. According to Uttaramerur inscriptions, committee members were chosen by a unique Lottery System using palm-leaf tickets in a pot.

Revenue Fact Chola inscriptions mention over 400 different tax terms, including Vetti (forced labour) and Kadamai (land revenue).

📂

Class-7 History Chapter-2 PDF

Complete Study Notes: New Kings and Kingdoms

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⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 32, 33, 34 and 35

Article 32 is the most important provision in the entire Constitution, while Articles 33, 34, and 35 deal with the parliament’s power to modify these rights in specific circumstances.

The Soul of the Constitution: Articles 32, 33, 34, & 35
Without a mechanism for enforcement, a list of rights is merely a collection of words. Article 32 provides that mechanism, ensuring that Fundamental Rights are “justiciable.”

1. Article 32: Right to Constitutional Remedies

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar famously described Article 32 as “the very soul of the Constitution and the very heart of it.” It provides the right to move the Supreme Court by appropriate proceedings for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights.

Key Characteristics

A Fundamental Right itself: The right to seek remedy is not just a legal procedure but a fundamental right in itself.
Basic Structure: The Supreme Court in the Fertilizer Corporation Kamgar Union case held that Article 32 is a basic feature of the Constitution; hence, it cannot be stripped away even by a Constitutional Amendment.
Scope: It is only for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights (Part III), not for statutory or common law rights.

The Five Prerogative Writs

Under Article 32 (Supreme Court) and Article 226 (High Courts), the judiciary can issue specific orders called “Writs”:

Habeas Corpus (“To have the body”): An order to produce a detained person before the court to examine the legality of the detention. It protects individual liberty against arbitrary arrest.
Mandamus (“We command”): A command issued to a public official, lower court, or government body to perform a mandatory duty which they have failed to perform.
Prohibition (“To forbid”): Issued by a higher court to a lower court or quasi-judicial body to prevent it from exceeding its jurisdiction or acting contrary to natural justice.
Certiorari (“To be certified”): Issued to quash an order already passed by a lower court or tribunal. While Prohibition is preventive, Certiorari is both curative and preventive.
Quo-Warranto (“By what authority”): Issued to enquire into the legality of a person’s claim to a public office. It prevents illegal “usurpation” of public office by anyone.

2. Article 33: Power of Parliament to Modify Rights

Article 33 gives Parliament the power to restrict or abrogate the Fundamental Rights of specific groups to ensure the proper discharge of their duties and the maintenance of discipline.

Groups Covered

Members of the Armed Forces.
Members of the Paramilitary Forces.
Police Forces.
Intelligence Agencies and counter-intelligence forces.
Telecommunication workers and others employed in these services.

Note: Only Parliament has the power to make these laws, not State Legislatures. These laws cannot be challenged in any court on the ground of contravention of any Fundamental Right.

3. Article 34: Restriction on Rights during Martial Law

Article 34 provides for the restriction of Fundamental Rights while Martial Law is in force in any area within the territory of India.

Definition: The Constitution does not define “Martial Law,” but it refers to a situation where the military takes over the administration due to a breakdown of public order.
Parliamentary Indemnity: Parliament can pass an “Act of Indemnity” to protect any government servant or person for any act done by them in connection with the maintenance of order during Martial Law.
Difference from National Emergency: Unlike a National Emergency (Art. 352), Martial Law affects only Fundamental Rights and is restricted to a specific area.

4. Article 35: Legislation to Give Effect to Provisions

Article 35 ensures that the nature of Fundamental Rights and the punishments for their violation remain uniform throughout India. It grants the exclusive power to Parliament to make laws regarding specific rights.

Exclusive Power of Parliament: Only Parliament (not State Legislatures) has the power to make laws regarding:
- Prescription of residence as a condition for employment (Art. 16).
- Empowering courts other than the SC/HC to issue writs (Art. 32).
- Restricting rights for Armed Forces (Art. 33).
- Indemnifying government servants during martial law (Art. 34).
Punishments: Parliament alone has the power to prescribe punishment for acts declared as offenses under Part III (e.g., Untouchability under Art. 17 or Forced Labour under Art. 23).

Summary Table

Article	Theme	Key Takeaway
32	Constitutional Remedies	The “Heart and Soul”; allows for Writ petitions.
33	Armed Forces	Allows Parliament to limit rights for disciplined forces.
34	Martial Law	Restricts rights during military rule in specific areas.
35	Legislation Power	Ensures uniform enforcement of rights via Parliament.

⚖️ Articles 32–35: Enforcement

❤️ Art 32: Constitutional Remedies

Termed the “Heart and Soul” of the Constitution. It makes Fundamental Rights justiciable by allowing citizens to move the Supreme Court directly for their enforcement.

📜 The Five Prerogative Writs

1. Habeas Corpus (Produce body), 2. Mandamus (Command duty), 3. Prohibition (Stop), 4. Certiorari (Quash), 5. Quo-Warranto (Check authority).

🛡️ Art 33: Armed Forces

Empowers Parliament to restrict Fundamental Rights of the Armed Forces, Police, and Intelligence agencies to ensure Discipline and proper discharge of duties.

🪖 Art 34: Martial Law

Allows for restrictions on rights when Military Rule is in force. Parliament can grant Indemnity to govt. servants for acts done during this period to maintain order.

⚡ Art 35: Legislative Power

Exclusive power to Parliament (not States) to make laws for prescribing punishments for offenses like Untouchability (Art 17) or Forced Labour (Art 23).

🏗️ Basic Structure

The right to move the Supreme Court under Article 32 is a Basic Feature of the Constitution. It cannot be taken away even by a Constitutional Amendment.

Final Summary While Article 32 provides the remedy, Articles 33-35 provide the Parliament with the regulatory power to balance rights with national security and uniform justice.

“The Indian Express” Editorial Analysis (16-January-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Indian Express Editorials for January 16, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. India-EU Trade Pact: A Pivot Amidst Global Churn

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India; Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests).

Context: Amidst uncertainty over a trade deal with the U.S. and the impact of steep 50% U.S. tariffs, India is accelerating its Free Trade Agreement (FTA) negotiations with the European Union (EU).

Key Points:

Negotiation Milestone: India and the EU have successfully closed 20 out of 24 chapters of the FTA.
Republic Day Signal: The President of the European Council and the President of the European Commission will be the chief guests at India’s Republic Day celebrations, where they will co-chair the 16th India-EU Summit on January 27.
Strategic Shift: The deal is seen as a way to blunt the impact of U.S. tariffs on labor-intensive Indian exports like apparel, which are currently losing market share to competitors like Bangladesh and Vietnam.
Mode 4 Negotiations: For the first time, the movement of skilled professionals (Mode 4) is a negotiable instrument, potentially opening doors for Indian professionals in Germany and other EU nations.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “India-EU Strategic Ties,” “Global Trade Dynamics,” and “Diversification of Export Markets.”

Detailed Analysis:

Overcoming Roadblocks: The FTA has been stalled for a decade over environment and labor rights issues. The current urgency, driven by U.S. protectionism, has pushed both sides to resolve long-standing disputes, though sensitive agricultural issues remain excluded for now.
The German Pillar: Germany’s dominance in EU trade and its specific “Skilled Immigration Act” are acting as catalysts for the broader India-EU agreement, particularly in technology transfer and high-end services.
Carbon Tax Challenge: The EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) remains the biggest hurdle, as it could impose steep duties on India’s metal exports, potentially reversing the gains from the trade deal.

2. Trump Year 2: Strategic Recalibration for India

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; India-US Relations; Geopolitics).

Context: An analysis by former Foreign Secretary Shyam Saran on the turbulent first year of President Donald Trump’s second term and the stalling of the upward trajectory in India-US ties.

Key Points:

Stalled Trajectory: The steady 25-year growth in bilateral relations has hit a plateau, marked by high tariffs and public criticism of India’s economy and its ties with Russia.
The “Grand Bargain” Priority: The U.S. administration appears more focused on a “grand bargain” with China, potentially deprioritizing the Indo-Pacific strategy and the Quad.
Pax Silica Inclusion: While India was belatedly included in the U.S.-led “Pax Silica” tech alliance, the delay suggests India must “bring more to the table” to be a partner of choice.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Indo-U.S. Bilateral Relations,” “Strategic Autonomy,” and “West Asian Geopolitics.”

Detailed Analysis:

Operation Sindoor Fallout: Tensions were reportedly triggered by India’s refusal to acknowledge Trump’s alleged role in a ceasefire during “Operation Sindoor” or nominate him for the Nobel Peace Prize, unlike Pakistan.
Strategic Dead End: Analysts argue that India’s calm, conventional approach to diplomacy has become a liability in a “transactional” U.S. era where flattery and major concessions are expected.
The Way Forward: India is advised to “go back to the drawing board,” focusing on accelerating internal growth and stabilizing its own periphery rather than relying solely on the U.S. partnership.

3. VB-GRAM G: The End of the Work Guarantee?

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Governance; Welfare schemes; Issues arising out of design and implementation).

Context: The transition from MGNREGA to the Viksit Bharat-Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) Act, 2025.

Key Points:

Increased Days, Conditional Access: The new law increases guaranteed work from 100 to 125 days but potentially makes job availability more “shrinking and conditional”.
Female Participation at Risk: Critics argue that without the absolute guarantee of work within proximity, rural women will be pushed toward informal, less secure work.
Digital Oversight: The Act introduces a “Social Audit” via the Panchayat Nirnay app and an “e-measurement book” to track progress and wages in real-time.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Rural Development,” “Women Empowerment,” and “Welfare Governance.”

Detailed Analysis:

Transition Rules: The Ministry of Rural Development is allowing verified MGNREGA job cards to be used during the transition to minimize disruption.
Funding Shift: The new law increases the share of funding required from states, which may lead to financial strain and reduced implementation in poorer regions.

4. India’s First State-Funded BSL-4 Lab

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Science and Technology; Health; Awareness in the fields of Bio-technology).

Context: Union Home Minister Amit Shah laid the foundation for a Bio-Safety Level 4 (BSL-4) containment facility in Gandhinagar, Gujarat.

Key Points:

Strategic Asset: This will be India’s first BSL-4 lab fully funded and controlled by a state government, serving as a “health shield” for the nation.
Target Pathogens: The lab will study the world’s most lethal pathogens, including Ebola, Marburg, Nipah, and Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF).
Infrastructure Hub: The ₹362 crore facility will also include Animal Bio-Safety Level (ABSL) modules to research zoonotic diseases transmitted from animals to humans.

UPSC Relevance: Key for “Public Health Security,” “Biotechnology Developments,” and “Disaster Preparedness.”

Detailed Analysis:

Addressing Bottlenecks: Currently, India has very few civilian BSL-4 facilities (Pune and Gwalior). The lack of such labs has historically hampered the investigation of rapid outbreaks.
National Facility: An MoU has been signed to declare this a “national facility,” ensuring expert guidance and collaborative research across Indian institutions.

5. Roadmap to Road Safety: A Systemic Failure

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Infrastructure: Roads; Disaster Management).

Context: A joint report by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) and SaveLIFE Foundation analyzes road fatalities in India’s top 100 districts.

Key Points:

The Engineering Factor: 59% of fatalities do not involve traffic violations, pointing to poor road engineering as the primary killer.
Concentrated Risk: 58% of deaths occur at known crash-prone locations or “black spots”.
Peak Danger: 53% of deaths are reported between 6 PM and 12 AM.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Infrastructure Planning,” “Public Safety,” and “Urban Governance.”

Detailed Analysis:

Hospital Readiness Gap: 8 out of 10 victims were hospitalised by means other than the government’s 108 ambulance service, highlighting critical gaps in post-crash trauma care.
Proposed Solution: The report argues that no new schemes are needed. Instead, existing budgets should be aligned for site-specific engineering interventions and better coordination between police, hospitals, and road agencies.

Indian Express Analysis

Jan 16, 2026

GS-2 IR

🇪🇺 India-EU FTA: Strategic Acceleration

Negotiations close 20 out of 24 chapters as India pivots toward Europe to blunt U.S. tariffs. Breakthrough: Inclusion of Mode 4 (skilled labor mobility). Major Hurdle: EU’s Carbon Border Tax (CBAM) remains a risk for Indian metal exports.

GS-2 IR

🇺🇸 Indo-U.S. Ties: The Transactional Plateau

Strategic recalibration needed as Trump Year 2 deprioritizes the Quad for a “Grand Bargain” with China. Friction point: Operation Sindoor and transactional diplomacy. Analysis suggests India must focus on Internal Growth rather than superpower reliance.

GS-2 Welfare

🌾 From MGNREGA to VB-GRAM G

New Act increases guarantee to 125 Days but introduces digital hurdles via the Panchayat Nirnay App. Concern: Increased funding burden on states (40%) may lead to “shrinking and conditional” access, specifically impacting Rural Women.

GS-3 S&T

🧪 India’s First State-Funded BSL-4 Lab

Gujarat launches ₹362 Cr containment facility to study Ebola, Nipah, and Marburg. Strategic value: First state-controlled high-security lab to bypass central research bottlenecks. Includes Animal Bio-Safety (ABSL) modules for zoonotic disease tracking.

GS-3 Infra.

🛣️ Road Safety: The Engineering Crisis

Shocking data: 59% of fatalities involve poor engineering, not traffic violations. Critical window: 53% of deaths occur between 6 PM – 12 AM. Call for action: Eliminating known “black spots” and fixing the Hospital Readiness Gap in trauma care.

Mapping:

Today’s mapping notes will focus on the Physiographic Divisions of India, specifically the Himalayan Ranges, the Peninsular Plateau, and the Major Passes of the Western Ghats.

1. The Himalayan Ranges (North to South)

The Himalayas are not a single range but a series of parallel ranges. Mapping them accurately requires understanding their vertical layers.

The Trans-Himalayas: Includes the Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zaskar ranges. This is where K2 (Godwin-Austen) is located.
The Greater Himalayas (Himadri): The northernmost and highest range, containing peaks like Mt. Everest and Kanchenjunga.
The Lesser Himalayas (Himachal): Located south of the Himadri; famous for hill stations like Shimla, Manali, and the Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges.
The Shiwaliks: The outermost and youngest range, characterized by flat-bottomed valleys called Duns (e.g., Dehradun).

2. The Peninsular Plateau (Central & South India)

This is the oldest landmass of India, divided into two broad regions by the Narmada River.

Central Highlands: Located north of the Narmada. Includes the Malwa Plateau, Vindhya Range, and the Aravallis (the oldest fold mountains).
Deccan Plateau: A triangular landmass south of the Narmada.
- Western Ghats (Sahyadri): Continuous mountains along the west coast; higher than the Eastern Ghats.
- Eastern Ghats: Discontinuous and eroded by east-flowing rivers (Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna).
- Nilgiri Hills: The junction where the Western and Eastern Ghats meet.

3. Strategic Gaps: Passes of the Western Ghats

Unlike the Himalayan passes we discussed earlier, these “Ghats” or gaps are essential for connecting the coastal plains to the interior plateau.

Pass (Ghat)	Connects	Strategic Importance
Thal Ghat	Mumbai to Nashik	Major rail and road link for North India bound traffic.
Bhor Ghat	Mumbai to Pune	Connects the coast to the heart of the Deccan Plateau.
Pal Ghat	Palakkad to Coimbatore	A major break in the Western Ghats connecting Kerala to Tamil Nadu.
Senkotta Pass	Kollam to Madurai	The southernmost major pass connecting Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

4. Major Peaks & Highest Points

Highest in India: K2 (located in the Karakoram, Ladakh).
Highest in the Himalayas (India): Kanchenjunga (Sikkim).
Highest in the Peninsular Plateau: Anamudi (Kerala, Anaimalai Hills).
Highest in the Aravallis: Guru Shikhar (Mt. Abu, Rajasthan).
Highest in the Eastern Ghats: Jindhagada Peak (Andhra Pradesh).

Summary Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Key Location
Oldest Range	Aravallis	Rajasthan/Haryana
Highest Peninsular Peak	Anamudi	Kerala
Meeting Point of Ghats	Nilgiri Hills	TN/Kerala/Karnataka junction
Longest Glacier	Siachen	Karakoram Range

Physiographic Realms

Fold Mountains

🏔️ The Himalayan Arc

A sequence of parallel ranges: the Trans-Himalayas (Karakoram/Zaskar), the high Himadri, the hill-station rich Himachal, and the outer Shiwaliks.

Mission: Locate Dehradun on the map and identify it as a ‘Dun’—a flat-bottomed valley between the Lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks.

The Shield

⛰️ Peninsular Plateau

India’s oldest landmass is split by the Narmada River into the Central Highlands (Vindhyas/Aravallis) and the triangular Deccan Plateau.

Mission: Trace the Western and Eastern Ghats to their meeting point at the Nilgiri Hills.

Connectivity

🛣️ Passes of the Sahyadri

Critical gaps in the Western Ghats facilitate trade and travel between the coastal plains and the interior plateau.

Pass (Ghat)	Connects	Importance
Thal Ghat	Mumbai to Nashik	North India Link
Bhor Ghat	Mumbai to Pune	Deccan Heart Link
Pal Ghat	Palakkad to Coimbatore	Kerala-TN Break

Highest Points Checklist

Region	Highest Peak	Location
Karakoram Range	K2 (Godwin-Austen)	Ladakh (POK)
Peninsular Plateau	Anamudi	Kerala (Anaimalai Hills)
Aravalli Range	Guru Shikhar	Mt. Abu, Rajasthan
Eastern Ghats	Jindhagada Peak	Andhra Pradesh

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 15 Jan 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-1 (Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years)

This chapter, “Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years,” serves as an introduction to the medieval period of Indian history (roughly 700 to 1750 CE). It explores how maps, terminology, social structures, and religions evolved during this millennium.

1. Cartography and Perspective

Maps tell us a great deal about the geographical knowledge of a specific time.

Al-Idrisi’s Map (1154 CE): The Arab geographer showed South India at the top and Sri Lanka as an island at the top.
French Cartographer’s Map (1720s): Created nearly 600 years later, this map is more familiar to us, showing detailed coastal areas.
Changing Accuracy: The difference between these maps shows that the “science of cartography” changed significantly over the centuries.

2. New and Old Terminologies

The meaning of words changes over time. Historical records exist in many languages which have changed significantly over centuries.

Hindustan:
- In the 13th century, Minhaj-i-Siraj used it to describe areas of Punjab, Haryana, and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna (political context).
- By the 16th century, Babur used it to describe the geography, fauna, and culture of the subcontinent.
Foreigner: Today, it means someone who is not Indian. In the medieval period, it was any stranger who appeared in a given village, someone who was not a part of that society or culture.

3. Historians and Their Sources

Historians use different types of sources depending on the period they are studying.

Textual Records: The number and variety of textual records increased dramatically during this period because paper became cheaper and more widely available.
Manuscripts: These were collected by wealthy people, rulers, monasteries, and temples. They were placed in archives.
Scribes: Since there was no printing press, scribes copied manuscripts by hand. Small changes made during copying grew over centuries until different versions of the same text became significantly different.

4. Technological and Social Innovations

The period between 700 and 1750 was a time of great mobility and the emergence of new groups.

Technological Changes: New technologies appeared, such as the persian wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in weaving, and firearms in combat.
New Crops: Crops like potatoes, corn, chilies, tea, and coffee arrived in the subcontinent.

5. New Political and Social Groups: The Rajputs and Jatis

The Rajputs: The name is derived from “Rajaputra” (son of a ruler). Between the 8th and 14th centuries, the term was applied to a body of warriors who claimed Kshatriya status.
Jatis: As society became more differentiated, people were grouped into jatis (sub-castes) based on their backgrounds and occupations. Jatis framed their own rules and regulations to manage the conduct of their members, enforced by an assembly of elders known as the jati panchayat.

6. Region and Empire

Large states like those of the Cholas, Tughluqs, or Mughals encompassed many regions.

Pan-Regional Empire: This term describes empires spanning diverse regions.
Legacy of Empires: When large empires declined, many small states emerged, but the regions carried the distinct and shared legacies of the “pan-regional” rules in areas of governance, economy, and culture.

7. Old and New Religions

Major developments occurred in religious traditions during these thousand years.

Hinduism: Changes included the worship of new deities, the construction of temples by royalty, and the growing importance of Brahmans and priests as dominant groups in society.
Bhakti: The idea of Bhakti emerged—a loving, personal deity that devotees could reach without the aid of priests or elaborate sacrifices.
Islam: New religions appeared in the subcontinent. Merchants and migrants first brought the teachings of the Holy Quran in the 7th century. Many rulers were patrons of Islam and the ulama (learned theologians and jurists).

8. Periodization of Indian History

Historians face challenges when dividing history into “blocks” of time.

British Division: In the mid-19th century, British historians divided Indian history into “Hindu,” “Muslim,” and “British” periods based solely on the religion of the rulers.
Modern View: Most historians today ignore this religious division and instead focus on social and economic changes to differentiate between the Ancient, Medieval, and Modern periods.

🗺️ Tracing 1000 Years (700-1750)

🗺️ Mapping & Terms

Cartography evolved from Al-Idrisi (1154) to French maps (1720s). Words like Hindustan shifted from political geography (13th c.) to cultural descriptions (16th c. Babur).

✒️ Records & Scribes

As paper became cheaper, Manuscripts increased. Since there were no printing presses, Scribes copied texts by hand, introducing small errors that grew into major textual differences over centuries.

🎡 Innovation & Jatis

New tech like the Persian Wheel (irrigation) and crops (potatoes, chilies) arrived. Society split into Jatis (sub-castes) with their own Jati Panchayats to manage local rules.

🕌 Religion & Empire

The era saw the rise of Bhakti (personal devotion) and the arrival of Islam. Pan-regional empires (Mughals, Tughluqs) left lasting legacies in governance across diverse regions.

Periodization Modern historians reject the British “Hindu-Muslim-British” labels, focusing instead on social/economic changes to define the Medieval period.

📂

Class-7 History Chapter-1 PDF

Complete Study Notes: Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years

Download Now

⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 29, 30 and 31

While Articles 14–28 focus largely on individual and religious freedoms, Articles 29 and 30 protect group identities—specifically those of minorities. Article 31, once a cornerstone of Part III, tells the story of India’s constitutional evolution from protecting private wealth to enabling public welfare.

1. Article 29: Protection of Interests of Minorities

Article 29 ensures that “any section of citizens” can preserve their unique identity. Interestingly, while the title mentions “minorities,” the text uses the phrase “section of citizens,” making it broader in scope.

Key Clauses

Article 29(1): Grants any section of citizens residing in India with a distinct language, script, or culture the right to conserve the same.
- Note: Unlike Article 19, this right is not explicitly subject to “reasonable restrictions.” The Supreme Court has noted that the right to conserve a language includes the right to agitate for its protection.
Article 29(2): Prohibits discrimination in admissions to educational institutions maintained by the State or receiving State aid based only on religion, race, caste, or language.

Scope of the Term “Section of Citizens”

In the Ahmedabad St. Xavier’s College Case, the Supreme Court ruled that Article 29 is not restricted to minorities. Even the majority community (if they have a distinct language/culture in a specific region) can claim this right.

2. Article 30: Right of Minorities to Establish and Administer Educational Institutions

This article is specifically for Religious and Linguistic Minorities. It provides them the autonomy to provide education to their own community.

The Rights Conferred

Right to Establish: The right to bring into existence an educational institution of their choice (schools, colleges, or universities).
Right to Administer: The right to manage, conduct, and govern the institution without unnecessary external control.
Protection Against Discrimination in Aid: The State cannot discriminate against a minority-managed school when granting financial aid just because it is a minority institution.

Key Legal Developments

T.M.A. Pai Foundation Case (2002): The Supreme Court clarified that “Minority” status must be determined State-wise, not nationally. For example, Hindus can be a minority in Punjab or Nagaland.
Regulatory Oversight: While minority institutions have autonomy, the State can still impose regulations to ensure academic standards, hygiene, security, and the welfare of teachers. It is a “right to administer,” not a “right to maladminister.”

3. Article 31: The Right to Property (Repealed)

Article 31 was originally a Fundamental Right that prohibited the State from taking a person’s property without a valid law and “compensation.”

The History of Repeal

In the early years of independence, Article 31 became a hurdle for Land Reforms and the abolition of the Zamindari system. Landowners repeatedly challenged government projects in court, demanding high compensation.

The 44th Amendment Act (1978): Abolished Article 31 (and Art 19(1)(f)) as a Fundamental Right.
Current Status: It was shifted to a new chapter in the Constitution as Article 300A.

Right to Property Today (Article 300A)

It is no longer a Fundamental Right; it is now a Legal/Constitutional Right.
Impact: A citizen cannot approach the Supreme Court directly under Article 32 if their property is taken. However, they can still go to the High Court under Article 226.
Rule: No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law. The government must still follow a fair process and pay compensation under modern laws like the LARR Act, 2013.

Comparison Summary Table

Feature	Article 29	Article 30	Article 31 (Now 300A)
Category	Cultural & Educational	Educational Autonomy	Right to Property
Available To	Any section of citizens (Majority & Minority)	Only Religious & Linguistic Minorities	All Persons
Current Status	Fundamental Right	Fundamental Right	Legal Right (Not Fundamental)
Key Purpose	Conserving script/culture	Managing own schools	Balanced land acquisition

🎨 Articles 29, 30 & 31

📜 Art 29: Conserving Identity

Protects “any section of citizens” with a distinct Language, Script, or Culture. Broad in scope, it can even apply to the majority community in certain regions.

🏫 Art 30: Minority Autonomy

Exclusive to Religious & Linguistic Minorities. Right to establish and administer educational institutions. State aid cannot be denied on the basis of minority status.

📍 Defining “Minority”

Per the T.M.A. Pai Case, minority status is determined state-wise, not nationally. A community might be the majority in India but a Minority in a specific State.

🏠 Article 31: Property History

Originally a Fundamental Right, it was repealed by the 44th Amendment (1978) to remove hurdles for land reforms and public welfare projects.

⚖️ Status of Property Today

Property is now a Legal/Constitutional Right under Article 300A. The State can still acquire land, but it must follow “authority of law” and provide fair process.

🔍 Administer vs. Regulate

Minorities have the right to Administer, but not “maladminister.” The State can still regulate academic standards, teacher welfare, and institution security.

Pro Tip Article 29 is available to all sections of citizens, while Article 30 is specifically reserved only for religious and linguistic minorities.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (15-January-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 15, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Justice Delayed: Continued Custody in Delhi Riots Cases

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Polity and Governance; Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability; Judiciary).

Context: An editorial analyzing the Supreme Court’s recent decision to deny bail to several activists in the 2020 Delhi riots conspiracy case while granting it to others, highlighting the stringent nature of the UAPA.

Key Points:

The “Hierarchy of Participation”: The Court has introduced a distinction between “ideological drivers” and “local-level facilitators.” Those labeled as ideological drivers face indefinite custody without trial.
UAPA as a Bar: Section 43D(5) of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act makes bail nearly impossible if the court finds the accusations prima facie true, effectively turning “the process into the punishment.”
Pre-trial Detention: The editorial raises concerns that prolonged incarceration without a trial date in sight violates the fundamental right to liberty under Article 21.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Criminal Justice Reform,” “Fundamental Rights,” and “Internal Security Laws.”

Detailed Analysis:

Judicial Consistency: The editorial argues for a consistent application of the “Bail, not Jail” principle. It critiques the court for relying on the prosecution’s narrative at the bail stage without the rigor of cross-examination.
Definition of Terror: By categorizing civil protests and road blockades as “terrorist acts” under the UAPA, the editorial warns of a shrinking space for dissent in a democracy.
Trial Delays: With thousands of witnesses and massive chargesheets, the trial is unlikely to conclude soon, making pre-trial detention a matter of grave human rights concern.

2. Campus Equity: UGC’s New Mandate

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Social Justice; Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Education; Issues related to SC/ST).

Context: The University Grants Commission (UGC) has directed all Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs) to establish Campus Equity Committees to combat caste-based discrimination.

Key Points:

Structural Oversight: Every university must now have a standing committee chaired by a senior faculty member from the SC/ST community to monitor and address grievances.
Mandatory Web Portals: Institutions are required to develop dedicated web portals for students to lodge complaints of discrimination anonymously.
Periodic Audits: HEIs must conduct annual equity audits to assess the social inclusivity of their campuses and submit reports to the UGC.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Social Justice,” “Educational Reforms,” and “Inclusive Growth.”

Detailed Analysis:

Addressing the “Hidden” Curriculum: The mandate recognizes that caste discrimination often manifests in subtle forms—in grading, project allocations, and social circles—not just in overt violence.
Accountability: By making the Vice-Chancellor personally responsible for the functioning of these committees, the UGC aims to move beyond “paper-based compliance.”
Holistic Environment: The focus is on creating a “supportive ecosystem” that includes bridge courses, peer mentoring, and psychological counseling specifically for marginalized students.

3. The Greenland Gambit: Strategic Implications

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests).

Context: U.S. President Donald Trump has reiterated that the U.S. needs Greenland for “vital security,” leading to a diplomatic rift with Denmark.

Key Points:

The Thule Connection: The U.S. already maintains the Thule Air Base in Greenland, a critical part of its early-warning radar system.
Arctic Geopolitics: As the Arctic ice melts, Greenland becomes central to new shipping routes and access to vast untapped mineral resources (Rare Earth Elements).
NATO Tension: Danish Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen has stated that an American takeover would effectively end the NATO alliance by undermining the sovereignty of a member state.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Arctic Council,” “Global Strategic Geopolitics,” and “U.S. Foreign Policy.”

Detailed Analysis:

The Mineral Frontier: Greenland holds some of the world’s largest deposits of minerals essential for the green energy transition, making it a “strategic prize” in the U.S.-China rivalry.
Sovereignty vs. Security: The editorial analyzes whether the “real estate” approach to diplomacy threatens the post-WWII international order based on territorial integrity.
Implications for India: As a permanent observer in the Arctic Council, India has a stake in ensuring the Arctic remains a zone of cooperation rather than a theater of great-power conflict.

4. MGNREGA in the Crosshairs: The Karnataka Debate

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Governance; Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections; Centre-State Relations).

Context: The Karnataka government is set to hold a joint session to discuss the proposed repeal or significant modification of the MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act) in the state.

Key Points:

Allegations of Corruption: The state government cites “systemic leakages” and “non-productive asset creation” as reasons for reconsidering the scheme’s implementation.
The Alternative: Proposals are being made to shift the focus from “guaranteed manual labor” to “skill-based employment” under state-run missions.
Constitutional Hurdle: Since MGNREGA is a central Act, a state cannot unilaterally repeal it, leading to a potential legal and federal standoff with the Centre.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Welfare Governance,” “Federalism,” and “Rural Development.”

Detailed Analysis:

Safety Net Concerns: Labor unions argue that during periods of agrarian distress, MGNREGA remains the only viable safety net for the landless poor.
Asset Quality: The editorial notes that the problem lies not in the Act itself, but in the “planning of works” at the Panchayat level, which often fails to create sustainable irrigation or soil conservation infrastructure.
Financial Strain: The delay in wage payments from the Centre has often forced states to bear the burden, fueling the demand for more local control over rural employment.

5. Sewage Leakage and the Right to Water

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Environment; Pollution; Disaster Management).

Context: The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has issued notices to three North Indian states after reports confirmed that untreated sewage is leaking into primary drinking water pipelines.

Key Points:

Inter-connected Infrastructure: In many urban pockets, aging sewage lines and water supply pipes run parallel and are frequently in close proximity, leading to cross-contamination during leakages.
Public Health Crisis: This infrastructure failure is linked to recent outbreaks of water-borne diseases like cholera and diarrhea in several districts.
The “Clean Water” Mandate: The NGT has directed states to provide an immediate “map of vulnerabilities” where sewage and water lines intersect.

UPSC Relevance: Key for “Urban Infrastructure Challenges,” “Environmental Governance,” and “Public Health.”

Detailed Analysis:

Urban Governance Blindspot: The editorial critiques the focus on “Smart City” aesthetics while the “underground” reality of deteriorating pipes is ignored.
Polluter Pays Principle: The NGT is considering imposing heavy fines on municipal bodies that fail to segregate the dual-pipe system within a strict timeframe.
The Cost of Inaction: Beyond the health cost, the economic cost of treating water-borne illnesses and the loss of man-days highlights the need for an “underground infrastructure revolution.”

Editorial Analysis

Jan 15, 2026

GS-2 Polity

⚖️ UAPA: Process vs. Punishment

Supreme Court uses a Hierarchy of Participation to distinguish between ideological drivers and facilitators. Concern: Section 43D(5) makes bail nearly impossible, potentially violating Article 21 through indefinite pre-trial detention.

GS-2 Social

🎓 Campus Equity: Mandating Inclusivity

UGC directs HEIs to establish Equity Committees chaired by SC/ST faculty. New requirements: Dedicated web portals for anonymous complaints and Annual Equity Audits to dismantle the “hidden curriculum” of subtle caste-based discrimination.

GS-2 IR

🏔️ The Greenland Gambit: Arctic Prize

U.S. interest in Greenland sparks tension with Denmark over sovereignty and Thule Air Base. Strategic value: Untapped Rare Earth Elements and new shipping routes as Arctic ice melts. Implications for India: Stake in Arctic Council cooperation.

GS-2 Gov.

🚜 MGNREGA: Welfare vs. State Reform

Karnataka debates modification of MGNREGA citing Systemic Leakages. Conflict: State proposals for skill-based shifts vs. the Central Act. Critique: Focus should be on improving Panchayat-level planning for sustainable asset creation rather than repeal.

GS-3 Environ.

💧 Sewage Contamination & Urban Health

NGT issues notices over sewage leaking into Drinking Water Pipelines. Vulnerability: Parallel, aging infrastructure leading to cross-contamination. NGT considers the Polluter Pays Principle for municipal bodies failing to segregate lines.

Mapping:

For today’s mapping notes, we will focus on UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India, Major Ocean Currents and Winds, and India’s Major Mineral Belts.

1. UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India

India is home to numerous sites recognized for their outstanding cultural or natural importance. These are categorized into Cultural, Natural, and Mixed sites.

Cultural Sites:
- Ajanta and Ellora Caves (Maharashtra): Ancient rock-cut Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain caves that showcase incredible art and architecture.
- Taj Mahal (Uttar Pradesh): An iconic ivory-white marble mausoleum on the banks of the Yamuna River.
- Hampi (Karnataka): The ruins of the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, featuring stunning temples and palaces.
- Dholavira (Gujarat): A major Harappan city known for its unique three-part division and advanced water management.
Natural Sites:
- Kaziranga National Park (Assam): Famous for its population of one-horned rhinoceroses.
- Western Ghats: A mountain range and biodiversity hotspot running along the western coast of India.
- Great Himalayan National Park (Himachal Pradesh): Known for its high mountain peaks and diverse alpine flora.
Mixed Site:
- Khangchendzonga National Park (Sikkim): Recognized for both its unique biological diversity and its cultural significance to local communities.

2. Major Ocean Currents and Winds

The climate and maritime activities of the Indian subcontinent are heavily influenced by the surrounding oceans and seasonal wind patterns.

Monsoon Winds:
- South-West Monsoon: Occurs from June to September; these moisture-laden winds blow from the sea to the land, bringing heavy rainfall to most of India.
- North-East Monsoon: Occurs from October to December; these winds blow from the land to the sea, bringing rain primarily to the Coromandel Coast (Tamil Nadu).
Ocean Currents in the Indian Ocean:
- South-West Monsoon Current: A warm current that flows clockwise along the coast of India during the summer.
- North-East Monsoon Current: Flows counter-clockwise during the winter months.

3. Major Mineral Belts of India

India’s industrial strength is rooted in its rich mineral deposits, which are concentrated in specific geological belts.

Belt	Region	Primary Minerals
North-Eastern Plateau	Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal	Iron ore, Coal, Manganese, Mica, Bauxite.
South-Western Belt	Karnataka, Goa, Tamil Nadu	High-grade Iron ore, Manganese, Limestone.
North-Western Belt	Rajasthan, Gujarat	Copper, Zinc, Lead, Precious stones, Petroleum.
Central Belt	Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh	Iron ore, Manganese, Limestone, Coal.

Summary Mapping Table

Category	Key Highlight	Geographic Focus
Oldest City Heritage	Dholavira	Gujarat (West)
Mineral Heartland	Chhota Nagpur Plateau	Eastern India
Primary Rain Wind	South-West Monsoon	Entire Subcontinent
Ancient Port Heritage	Lothal	Gujarat Coast

Heritage & Elements

UNESCO Sites

🏛️ Cultural & Natural Legacy

From the rock-cut Ajanta Caves to the Harappan city of Dholavira and the biodiversity of the Western Ghats, India’s heritage spans millennia and ecosystems.

Mission: Locate Khangchendzonga National Park (Sikkim) and identify why it is classified as a “Mixed” heritage site.

Atmosphere

🌬️ Monsoons & Currents

The climate is dictated by the South-West Monsoon (June-Sept) and the North-East Monsoon, which brings winter rain specifically to the Coromandel Coast.

Mission: Trace the North-East monsoon path to see why Tamil Nadu receives rain when the rest of India is dry.

Earth Wealth

💎 Mineral Belts

India’s industrial heart beats in the North-Eastern Plateau (Coal/Iron) and the North-Western Belt, famous for Copper and Zinc.

Belt	Region Focus	Primary Minerals
NE Plateau	JH, OD, WB	Iron ore, Coal, Mica
South-Western	Karnataka, Goa	High-grade Iron ore
North-Western	RJ, Gujarat	Copper, Zinc, Petroleum

Mission: Find the Chhota Nagpur Plateau and identify the three major states it covers.

Quick Mapping Summary

Category	Key Highlight	Geographic Focus
Ancient Heritage	Dholavira	Gujarat (Kutch)
Mineral Heartland	Chhota Nagpur Plateau	Eastern India
Primary Rain Wind	South-West Monsoon	Entire Subcontinent
Mixed Site	Khangchendzonga	Sikkim (Himalayas)

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 14 Jan 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 6 Chapter-12 (Buildings, Paintings and Books)

Chapter 12, “Buildings, Paintings and Books,” highlights the remarkable achievements of ancient India in the fields of architecture, art, science, and literature.

1. Ancient Metallurgy and the Iron Pillar

Ancient Indian metallurgists were highly advanced. While the Harappans belonged to the Bronze Age, their successors entered the Iron Age, producing forged, wrought, and cast iron.

The Iron Pillar: Located at Mehrauli, Delhi, this 7.2-meter-high pillar weighs over 3 tonnes.
Historical Significance: It was made about 1500 years ago during the time of a ruler named Chandra, likely of the Gupta dynasty.
Scientific Wonder: Despite being over 15 centuries old, the pillar has not rusted.

2. Architecture: Stupas and Temples

The period saw the construction of grand religious structures made of brick and stone.

Buddhist Stupas

The word stupa means “mound”.

Common Features: Most stupas have a small box at the center—a relic casket—containing the bodily remains of the Buddha or his followers (such as teeth or ashes) or items they used.
Structure: This casket was covered with earth, followed by layers of mud or baked brick, and often topped with carved stone slabs.
Pradakshina Patha: A circular path for devotees to walk around the stupa in a clockwise direction.
The Great Stupa at Sanchi: Built over centuries, with a brick mound likely dating to the time of Ashoka and railings/gateways added by later rulers.

Early Hindu Temples

Garbhagriha: The “womb chamber” where the image of the chief deity (such as Vishnu, Shiva, or Durga) was placed.
Shikhara: A tower built on top of the garbhagriha to signify its sacred status.
Mandapa: A hall where people could assemble.
Monoliths: Temples at Mahabalipuram were carved out of a single, massive piece of stone.

3. The Art of Painting: Ajanta

The caves at Ajanta (Maharashtra) contain world-famous monasteries decorated with exquisite paintings.

Technique: Because the caves were dark, artists painted by the light of torches.
Materials: Vivid colors were made from plants and minerals, surviving for 1500 years.

4. Literature: Epics and Old Stories

This era was a golden age for long compositions about heroic men, women, and gods.

Tamil Epics:
- Silappadikaram: Composed by Ilango around 1800 years ago, telling the story of Kovalan, Madhavi, and Kannagi.
- Manimekalai: Composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago.
Sanskrit Literature: Kalidasa wrote famous works like the Meghaduta.
Puranas: Literally meaning “old,” these contain stories of gods/goddesses and were written in simple Sanskrit so they could be heard by everyone, including women and shudras.
Sanskrit Epics: The Mahabharata and Ramayana were written down about 1500 years ago. Vyasa is the credited compiler of the Mahabharata, while Valmiki is recognized as the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana.

5. Ancient Science and Mathematics

Significant scientific progress was recorded in Sanskrit texts.

Aryabhata: A mathematician and astronomer who wrote the Aryabhatiyam. He correctly stated that day and night are caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis and provided a scientific explanation for eclipses.
Zero and Numerals: Indian mathematicians invented a special symbol for zero, a system later adapted by Arabs and spread to Europe.
Ayurveda: A health science developed in ancient India. Key texts include the Charak Samhita (medicine) by Charaka and the Susruta Samhita (surgical procedures) by Sushruta.

🏛️ Buildings, Paintings & Books

🏗️ Architecture

Buddhist Stupas (mounds) housed relic caskets, while temples featured the Garbhagriha (sacred chamber) and Shikhara. Some, like Mahabalipuram, were carved as Monoliths.

🧪 Science & Metallurgy

The 1,500-year-old Iron Pillar at Mehrauli remains rust-free. Aryabhata explained eclipses and Earth’s rotation, while Charaka and Sushruta advanced the science of Ayurveda.

🎨 Art & Ajanta

Cave monasteries at Ajanta feature world-famous paintings. Artists used natural minerals and plants to create vivid colors that have stayed bright for over 1,500 years in torch-lit caves.

📚 Literature & Epics

This era saw Tamil epics like Silappadikaram and the writing of the Puranas. Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, were also compiled in their final forms.

Innovation Indian mathematicians invented a specific symbol for Zero and the decimal system, which was later adopted by the Arabs and spread to Europe.

📂

Class-6 History Chapter-12 PDF

Complete Study Notes: Buildings, Paintings and Books

Download Now

⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 26, 27 and 28

These articles ensure that religion in India is not just a private affair but a protected communal activity, while simultaneously maintaining a “wall of separation” to prevent the State from becoming a theocracy.

1. Article 26: Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs

While Article 25 protects the individual, Article 26 protects the rights of “Religious Denominations” or sections thereof. It guarantees the right to organize and manage their own affairs.

The Four Rights of Denominations

Every religious denomination has the right:

Establish and Maintain Institutions: For religious and charitable purposes.
Manage Own Affairs: Specifically in “matters of religion.”
Own and Acquire Property: Both movable (money, vehicles) and immovable (land, buildings).
Administer Property: In accordance with law.

What is a “Religious Denomination”?

The Supreme Court (in the Shirur Mutt case) laid down three conditions for a group to be a “denomination”:

It must be a collection of individuals who have a system of beliefs (common faith).
It must have a common organization.
It must be designated by a distinctive name.
Example: The Ramakrishna Mission and Anand Marg are denominations within Hinduism.

Restriction: Like Article 25, these rights are subject to Public Order, Morality, and Health, but notably not subject to other Fundamental Rights (unlike Art 25).

2. Article 27: Freedom as to Payment of Taxes for Promotion of Any Particular Religion

Article 27 is a pillar of Indian Secularism. It prevents the State from using public money (collected via taxes) to favor one religion over another.

The Core Rule

The State cannot compel any person to pay any taxes, the proceeds of which are specifically used for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious denomination.
The Logic: If the State uses tax money to support only one religion, it violates the principle of secularism. However, if the State supports all religions equally, it may not violate this article.

Tax vs. Fee

The Supreme Court has made a vital distinction here:

Tax: Prohibited if used for a specific religion.
Fee: Permitted. The State can charge a “fee” from pilgrims (like at the Vaishno Devi shrine or Haj) to provide secular services like sanitation, security, and health. A fee is a payment for a service, not a promotion of the faith.

3. Article 28: Freedom as to Attendance at Religious Instruction

This article deals with the “Secular Character” of educational institutions. It regulates whether religious instruction can be provided in schools and colleges.

Four Types of Educational Institutions

The legality of religious instruction depends on the type of institution:

Type of Institution	Religious Instruction
Wholly maintained by State funds	Completely Prohibited.
Administered by State but established under Trust/Endowment	Permitted (e.g., a school founded by a religious trust).
Recognized by the State	Permitted on voluntary basis.
Receiving aid out of State funds	Permitted on voluntary basis.

The “Consent” Rule

In institutions where religious instruction is permitted (types 3 and 4), no person can be forced to participate.

If the student is a minor, the consent of the guardian is required.
This ensures that the State does not use education as a tool for religious proselytization.

Summary

Article	Nature of Right	Key Limitation
26	Collective (For groups/sects)	Public Order, Morality, Health.
27	Fiscal (Tax protection)	Distinguishes between Tax (No) and Fee (Yes).
28	Educational (Schools/Colleges)	Prohibits forced religious instruction in State-funded schools.

🕌 Articles 26, 27 & 28

🏛️ Art 26: Collective Rights

Protects Religious Denominations. They have the right to establish institutions, manage their own religious affairs, and own/administer property according to law.

🔍 What is a Denomination?

Per the Shirur Mutt case, a group needs: 1. A Common Faith, 2. A common organization, and 3. A Distinctive Name (e.g., Ramakrishna Mission).

💰 Art 27: Secular Taxation

The State cannot compel any person to pay Taxes specifically for the promotion of any particular religion. This maintains the State’s Religious Neutrality.

⚖️ Tax vs. Fee

While Taxes (general revenue) are prohibited for religion, the State can charge Fees from pilgrims to provide secular services like security and sanitation.

🏫 Art 28: Religious Instruction

Religious teaching is Prohibited in schools wholly funded by the State. In aided or recognized schools, it is permitted only on a Voluntary Basis.

✍️ Consent & Minors

No person can be forced to attend religious instruction. For Minors, the express consent of the Guardian is mandatory to participate in any religious activities.

Summary Art 26 covers group rights, Art 27 ensures fiscal secularism, and Art 28 maintains the secular character of educational institutions.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (14-January-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 14, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. LAC Vigilance: The Long Road to Trust

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; India and its Neighborhood- Relations; Security Challenges and their Management in Border Areas).

Context: Army Chief General Upendra Dwivedi’s annual press conference highlighting the status of disengagement and the “stable but sensitive” environment along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).

Key Points:

Operational Readiness: The Army Chief stated that while disengagement has occurred in specific sectors (Depsang and Demchok), the military remains in a high state of alert to prevent any unilateral change to the status quo.
Trust as a Casualty: He emphasized that “trust” has been the biggest casualty since April 2020. Restoring it requires a multi-stage process: Disengagement, De-escalation, and finally, De-modding (management of troops).
Infrastructure Parity: India is rapidly constructing border roads, tunnels, and bridges to achieve parity with Chinese infrastructure, ensuring swift troop mobilization if required.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for questions on “Indo-China Relations,” “National Security,” and “Border Infrastructure Development.”

Detailed Analysis:

The De-escalation Challenge: The transition from disengagement to de-escalation is complex. It involves moving heavy artillery, tanks, and thousands of troops back to their permanent rear bases—a move China has been hesitant to commit to fully.
Buffer Zones and Patrolling: The creation of temporary “no-patrol” buffer zones has successfully prevented physical brawls but has also restricted India’s traditional access to several patrolling points.
Strategic Patience: The Army’s stance indicates a shift toward a long-term “wait and watch” policy, where diplomatic engagement is backed by a robust military posture on the ground.

2. Stray Dog Menace: Liability of the Feeders

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Governance; Important aspects of governance; Social Justice; Role of Judiciary).

Context: Recent Supreme Court observations suggesting that individuals who feed stray dogs could be held financially liable for the victims’ medical expenses in case of dog bites.

Key Points:

Legal Responsibility: The Court observed that while feeding animals is an act of compassion, it should not lead to a public nuisance or safety hazard. Feeders may be asked to bear the cost of treatment for victims bitten by the dogs they sustain.
Constitutional Balance: The Court is navigating the fine line between the “Right to Life” (Article 21) of citizens and the ethical treatment of animals.
ABC Rules Oversight: The primary responsibility for sterilization and vaccination lies with local municipal bodies under the Animal Birth Control (ABC) Rules.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Judicial Activism,” “Local Self-Government Challenges,” and “Public Health Policy.”

Detailed Analysis:

Institutional Failure: The editorial notes that the rise in stray dog attacks is a direct result of the failure of urban local bodies to implement sterilization programs effectively.
Social Conflict: The lack of clear guidelines has led to increasing friction between “animal lovers” and “resident welfare associations (RWAs),” requiring the judiciary to step in as an arbiter.
Implementation Gaps: For a feeder-liability rule to work, there must be a way to legally define “regular feeding” and link a specific dog to a specific feeder, which remains a logistical challenge.

3. The Symbolism of Blue: From Champaran to Ambedkar

Syllabus: GS Paper 1 (Modern Indian History; Social Empowerment; Political Philosophies).

Context: An analysis of the historical and political significance of the colour blue, tracing its journey from the indigo fields of Champaran to the Ambedkarite movement.

Key Points:

Champaran Satyagraha (1917): The link begins with the struggle of indigo (neel) farmers against British planters, making blue a colour associated with peasant resistance.
Ambedkar’s Sky: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar chose blue for the Scheduled Castes Federation flag, representing the sky—universal, vast, and free from the boundaries of caste or religion.
Dalit Assertion: Today, the blue scarf and flag are powerful visual symbols of Dalit identity, dignity, and a demand for constitutional rights.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Social Reform Movements,” “Political Sociology,” and “History of the Freedom Struggle.”

Detailed Analysis:

A Secular Identity: Unlike saffron or green, which are often associated with specific religions, blue was selected as a “neutral” colour that embodies secularism and constitutionalism.
Visual Solidarity: The colour serves as a unifying thread for the marginalized across different languages and regions in India, creating a pan-Indian identity centered on empowerment.
From Oppression to Power: The transition of blue from a symbol of colonial exploitation (Indigo) to a symbol of political power (Ambedkarite movement) reflects the changing social fabric of India.

4. Uttarakhand Forest Fires: Threat to Biodiversity

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Environment and Ecology; Disaster Management).

Context: A major forest fire in the Valley of Flowers (UNESCO World Heritage Site) has persisted for five days, leading the state to seek help from the Indian Air Force (IAF).

Key Points:

Ecological Loss: The Valley is home to 600 varieties of exotic flowers and rare medicinal herbs that are currently at risk.
IAF Intervention: The IAF is deploying helicopters with “Bambi Buckets” to lift water from high-altitude reservoirs to douse fires in steep, inaccessible terrains.
Climate Drivers: A severe lack of winter snowfall and an unusually dry season have turned the forest floor into a tinderbox.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Conservation of Biodiversity,” “Disaster Management Mechanisms,” and “Himalayan Ecology.”

Detailed Analysis:

The Policy Gap: Forest fire management in India is often reactive. The editorial suggests a need for a “National Forest Fire Policy” that focuses on community-led “Van Panchayats” and satellite-based early warning systems.
Invasive Species: The proliferation of chir pine (highly flammable) over broad-leaved trees like oak has made the Himalayan forests more susceptible to uncontrollable blazes.

5. Combatting ‘Digital Arrests’: A New Inter-Agency Panel

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Internal Security; Cyber Security; Role of technology in policing).

Context: The Union Home Ministry has constituted a high-level committee to tackle the “Digital Arrest” scam, where fraudsters pose as law enforcement to extort money.

Key Points:

Scam Mechanism: Criminals use video calls to pose as CBI or ED officials, telling victims they are under “digital arrest” and cannot leave their homes or disconnect until they pay a fine.
Inter-Agency Panel: The panel includes the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C), the RBI, and the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) to block fraudulent SIMs and freeze bank accounts in real-time.
Verification Protocols: The committee is working on a system where citizens can verify the identity of a calling officer through a government portal.

UPSC Relevance: Key for “Cyber Security Challenges,” “Police Reforms,” and “Financial Fraud Prevention.”

Detailed Analysis:

Cross-Border Links: Many of these scams originate from “cyber-slave” hubs in Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Myanmar), requiring international cooperation via Interpol.
The Psychological Element: Fraudsters exploit the fear and respect the common citizen has for law enforcement. The editorial emphasizes that public awareness is the first line of defense; law enforcement never conducts interrogations via video calls.

Editorial Analysis

Jan 14, 2026

GS-2 IR

🏔️ LAC: The Deficit of Trust

Army Chief terms border “Stable but Sensitive.” While disengagement is done in Depsang/Demchok, De-escalation remains stalled. Focus: India seeks Infrastructure Parity to prevent unilateral changes to the status quo by China.

GS-2 Gov.

🐕 Feeder Liability & Public Safety

Supreme Court suggests financial liability for dog feeders if bites occur. Legal tension: Article 21 (Right to Safety) vs. Compassion. Root cause: Local bodies’ failure to implement Animal Birth Control (ABC) rules effectively.

GS-1 Hist.

🗳️ Blue: From Indigo to Empowerment

Tracing the color from Champaran (1917) resistance to the Ambedkarite movement. Representing the sky (Universal/Free), blue serves as a secular unifying thread for Dalit Identity and Constitutional assertion against caste hierarchies.

GS-3 Disaster

🔥 Valley of Flowers: Ecological Crisis

5-day forest fire in UNESCO site. Drivers: Dry winter and flammable Chir Pine proliferation. Mitigation: IAF deploying Bambi Buckets. Need: A National Forest Fire Policy integrated with community-led Van Panchayats.

GS-3 Security

📞 Combatting “Digital Arrests”

MHA forms inter-agency panel with I4C, RBI, and DoT to dismantle extortion rings. Strategy: Real-time freezing of accounts and blocking fraudulent SIMs. Fact: Law enforcement never conducts Interrogations via Video Calls.

Mapping:

For today’s mapping notes, we will focus on India’s Major Tribes, Agricultural Belts, and International Boundaries and Strategic Lines.

1. Major Tribes of India

India has a diverse tribal population, with communities residing in specific geographical zones based on forest and hilly terrains.

North and North-East India:
- Bhotias and Gujjars: Found in the Himalayan regions of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
- Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia: Primarily residing in the hills of Meghalaya.
- Nagas: Located across the state of Nagaland and parts of Manipur.
Central India:
- Gonds: One of the largest tribal groups, found across Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra.
- Bhils: Predominantly found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.
- Santhals: Mainly concentrated in Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha.
South India:
- Todas: Unique community living in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu.
- Chenchus: Primarily found in the Nallamala Hills of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

2. Major Agricultural Belts

The distribution of crops in India is determined by soil types, rainfall, and temperature.

Crop	Primary Region	Required Conditions
Rice	West Bengal, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh	High heat, high humidity, and heavy rainfall (above 100 cm).
Wheat	Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh	Cool growing season and bright sunshine at ripening.
Cotton	Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana	High temperature and light rainfall; thrives in Black Soil.
Tea	Assam, West Bengal (Darjeeling), Kerala	Well-drained soil on hill slopes with frequent showers.
Coffee	Karnataka (Baba Budan Hills), Kerala	Rich soil on well-drained slopes; Karnataka is the leader.

3. Strategic Boundaries and Lines

India’s borders are marked by specific lines that are critical for international relations and defense.

Radcliffe Line: The boundary line between India and Pakistan, as well as India and Bangladesh.
McMahon Line: The effective boundary between China and India (specifically in the Arunachal Pradesh sector).
Line of Control (LoC): The military control line between the Indian and Pakistani-controlled parts of Jammu and Kashmir.
Line of Actual Control (LAC): The effective border between India and China in the Ladakh and eastern sectors.
Durand Line: The boundary between Afghanistan and Pakistan (India also recognizes a small border with Afghanistan in the PoK region along this line).

Summary Mapping Table

Category	Key Highlight	Geographic Focus
Largest Tribe	Bhils / Gonds	Central and Western India
Rice Bowl	West Bengal & Punjab	Indo-Gangetic Plains
Longest International Border	India-Bangladesh	Eastern India
Cotton Hub	Deccan Trap	Gujarat & Maharashtra

Human & Strategic Landscapes

Ethnography

👤 Major Tribes

India’s cultural map is defined by indigenous groups like the Gonds & Santhals of the central heartland, the Todas of the Nilgiri Hills, and the Nagas of the North-East.

Mission: Locate the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu to find the unique home of the Toda tribe.

Agriculture

🌾 Agricultural Belts

Crop distribution is a reflection of geography. While Wheat thrives in the cool North, Coffee and Tea require the well-drained slopes of the Baba Budan Hills and Darjeeling.

Crop	Primary Region	Required Conditions
Cotton	Gujarat, Maharashtra	Black Soil; High Temp
Rice	WB, Punjab, UP	High Humidity; 100cm+ Rain
Coffee	Karnataka Hills	Well-drained Slopes

Mission: Identify the “Cotton Hub” of India on a map of the Deccan Trap.

Geopolitics

🚩 Strategic Boundaries

Critical international lines like the Radcliffe Line (Pakistan/Bangladesh) and the McMahon Line (China) define the nation’s sovereign limits.

Mission: Distinguish between the LoC (Pakistan side) and the LAC (China side) on a map of Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh.

Mapping Summary

Category	Key Highlight	Geographic Focus
Largest Tribe	Bhils / Gonds	Central & Western India
Rice Bowl	WB & Punjab	Indo-Gangetic Plains
Longest Border	India-Bangladesh	Eastern India (4,096 km)

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 13 Jan 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 6 Chapter-11 (New Empires and Kingdoms)

Chapter 11, “New Empires and Kingdoms,” explores the rise of the Gupta dynasty, the reign of Harshavardhana, and the powerful kingdoms of South India.

1. Prashastis and Samudragupta

Much of what we know about the Guptas comes from inscriptions called prashastis, a Sanskrit word meaning “in praise of”.

Samudragupta’s Inscription: A famous prashasti for Samudragupta was inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad. It was composed by his court poet and minister, Harishena.
The King as a Warrior: The poet describes Samudragupta as a magnificent warrior whose body was covered in scars from battle-axes, arrows, and spears.
A Musician-King: Coins from this era depict Samudragupta playing the veena, showing his interest in music and poetry.

Samudragupta’s Four-Fold Policy

Harishena outlines how the king handled different regions differently:

Aryavarta (North India): Nine rulers were uprooted, and their kingdoms became part of the empire.
Dakshinapatha (South India): Twelve rulers surrendered after defeat; Samudragupta allowed them to rule again as his subordinates.
Inner Circle: States like Assam, Nepal, and the gana sanghas of the North-West paid tribute and followed his orders.
Outlying Areas: Descendants of the Kushanas/Shakas and the ruler of Sri Lanka submitted and offered daughters in marriage.

2. Genealogies and Titles

Gupta prashastis often list ancestors (genealogies) to show the family’s rise to power.

Titles of Honor: Samudragupta’s father, Chandragupta, was the first to adopt the grand title maharaj-adhiraja. His ancestors were previously known simply as maha-rajas.
Chandragupta II: Samudragupta’s son led an expedition to Western India and defeated the last of the Shakas. He is linked to the Vikram Samvat era (beginning 58 BCE) and the title Vikramaditya. His court was home to the poet Kalidasa and the astronomer Aryabhata.

3. Harshavardhana and the Harshacharita

While we study Guptas through coins and inscriptions, we learn about King Harshavardhana (who ruled 1400 years ago) through biographies.

The Harshacharita: A biography written in Sanskrit by his court poet, Banabhatta.
Ascension to Power: Harsha became king of Thanesar after his father and brother died. He later took over Kanauj after his brother-in-law was killed by the ruler of Bengal.
Expansion and Defeat: He (Harsha) conquered Magadha and Bengal but was stopped from entering the Deccan by the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II at the Narmada river.
Xuan Zang: The Chinese pilgrim stayed at Harsha’s court and left a detailed account of the administration and society.

4. Southern Kingdoms: Pallavas and Chalukyas

These were the dominant dynasties in South India during this period.

Pallavas: Their kingdom centered around their capital, Kanchipuram, and extended to the Kaveri delta.
Chalukyas: Centered in the Raichur Doab; their capital, Aihole, was a prosperous trading and religious hub.
Pulakeshin II: The most famous Chalukya ruler. His court poet Ravikirti composed a prashasti describing his military expeditions along both the west and east coasts.

5. Administration and Local Government

Rulers developed new systems to win the support of powerful men.

Hereditary Posts: Some administrative roles were passed from father to son. Harishena was a maha-danda-nayaka (chief judicial officer) like his father.
Multiple Offices: One person often held several roles; Harishena was also a kumar-amatya (important minister) and sandhi-vigrahika (minister of war and peace).
Samantas: These were military leaders who provided troops to the king. Instead of salaries, they were often given land grants and collected revenue to maintain their armies.
Southern Assemblies: Pallava inscriptions mention the sabha (assembly of Brahmin landowners), the ur (village assembly of non-Brahmins), and the nagaram (merchant organization).

6. Society and Ordinary People

Language and Status: In Kalidasa’s plays (like Abhijnana Shakuntalam), the king and Brahmins speak Sanskrit, while ordinary men and women use Prakrit.
Untouchability: The pilgrim Fa Xian noted that “untouchables” were forced to live outside cities and strike wood to warn others of their approach.
The King’s Army: When the army moved, it was an enormous procession of musicians, soldiers, and animals carrying everything from weapons to golden footstools. Villagers were expected to provide hospitality and gifts.

📜 New Empires & Kingdoms

🔱 The Gupta Era

Knowable through Prashastis (praise inscriptions). Harishena’s poem for Samudragupta describes him as a warrior-king and musician. His son, Chandragupta II, took the title Vikramaditya.

🦁 Harshavardhana

Ruled 1,400 years ago from Kanauj. His life is recorded in the Harshacharita by Banabhatta. He was a great conqueror but was stopped at the Narmada by the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II.

🏛️ Southern Powers

Dominance of the Pallavas (Kanchipuram) and Chalukyas (Aihole). Local assemblies included the Sabha (Brahmin landowners), Ur (village assembly), and Nagaram (merchant guilds).

⚔️ Administration

Posts became Hereditary (e.g., Harishena as Chief Judicial Officer). Powerful military leaders, or Samantas, were granted land and provided troops to the king in exchange for revenue.

Social Fact While the elite spoke Sanskrit, ordinary people used Prakrit. Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian noted that “untouchables” lived outside cities and had to warn others of their presence.

📂

Class-6 History Chapter-11 PDF

Complete Study Notes: New Empires and Kingdoms

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⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 23, 24 and 25

While previous articles protect the individual from the State, Articles 23 and 24 often protect the individual from private exploitation, and Article 25 establishes the individual’s spiritual autonomy.

1. Article 23: Prohibition of Traffic in Human Beings and Forced Labour

Article 23 is a comprehensive “Right against Exploitation.” It is unique because it is enforceable against both the State and private individuals.

Key Components

Human Trafficking: The illegal trade of humans for the purposes of reproductive slavery, commercial sexual exploitation, or forced labor.
Begar: A form of forced labor where a person is compelled to work without any payment. It was a common historical practice in princely states.
Forced Labour: Any work or service exacted from any person under the threat of any penalty and for which the person has not offered himself voluntarily.

The “Economic Compulsion” Doctrine

In the landmark case PUDR v. Union of India (Asiad Workers Case), the Supreme Court significantly expanded this article.

The Ruling: The Court held that “force” is not just physical or legal. If a person is forced to work for less than the minimum wage due to poverty or hunger, that is also considered “forced labor” under Article 23.

The Exception [Clause 2]

The State can impose compulsory service for public purposes (e.g., military conscription or mandatory social service).

Condition: In doing so, the State cannot discriminate based only on religion, race, caste, or class.
Remuneration: Interestingly, the State is not constitutionally bound to pay for this compulsory service, though it usually does.

2. Article 24: Prohibition of Employment of Children

Article 24 is a “Social Mandate” aimed at ensuring that the childhood of India’s citizens is not lost to labor.

The Constitutional Mandate

It prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 in:

Factories
Mines
Hazardous Employment (Construction, Railways, Fireworks manufacture).

Evolution through Legislation and Judiciary

Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016: This effectively closed the loopholes of Article 24. It prohibits the employment of children below 14 in all occupations, except helping in a family business after school. It also introduced a new category called “Adolescents” (14-18 years), who are prohibited from hazardous work.
M.C. Mehta v. State of Tamil Nadu (1996): The SC directed the creation of a Child Labour Rehabilitation Welfare Fund. Employers caught violating the law must pay ₹20,000 per child into this fund.

3. Article 25: Freedom of Religion (Individual Rights)

Article 25 is the bedrock of Indian Secularism. It guarantees every individual the freedom to hold and practice their beliefs.

The Four Pillars of Religious Freedom

Freedom of Conscience: The absolute inner freedom to believe in any God or none at all.
Right to Profess: The outward declaration of one’s faith and belief.
Right to Practice: The right to perform rituals, ceremonies, and exhibitions of belief (e.g., wearing a Turban or a Cross).
Right to Propagate: The right to spread one’s ideas.
- The Conversion Limit: In Stainislaus v. State of MP, the SC ruled that the right to “propagate” is not the right to “convert.” Forced or fraudulent conversions are not protected.

The “Essential Religious Practices” Test

The Judiciary has developed a doctrine to decide which parts of a religion are protected.

Only practices that are integral or essential to the religion are protected.
Example: The SC ruled that Triple Talaq was not an essential practice of Islam and could therefore be abolished. Similarly, the use of loudspeakers for Azaan or Bhajan can be regulated as they are not “essential” to the core faith.

The State’s Power to Reform [Article 25(2)]

The State reserves the right to intervene in religious matters for:

Social Reform: Opening Hindu temples to all castes (Dalits).
Secular Activities: Regulating the financial or political wings of a religious trust.
Note: In this context, “Hindus” includes Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists.

Summary

Feature	Article 23	Article 24	Article 25
Category	Right Against Exploitation	Right Against Exploitation	Right to Freedom of Religion
Focus	Forced Labor & Trafficking	Child Labor (under 14)	Individual Religious Freedom
Target	Adults & Children	Children Specifically	All Persons (Individuals)
Key Limitation	Public Service Exception	None (Absolute for under 14)	Public Order, Morality, Health

🛡️ Articles 23, 24 & 25

🚫 Art 23: Human Trafficking

Prohibits Begar and forced labour. Per the “Asiad Workers” case, paying less than minimum wage due to poverty is also considered Forced Labour.

🧒 Art 24: Child Labour

Prohibits employment of children under 14 in factories or mines. The 2016 Act expanded this to all occupations and added protections for Adolescents (14-18).

🙏 Art 25: Individual Faith

Guarantees four freedoms: 1. Conscience (inner belief), 2. Profess, 3. Practice, and 4. Propagate. Available to all persons (citizens & foreigners).

⚖️ Essential Practices

The State protects only Essential Religious Practices. Rights are subject to Public Order, Morality, and Health. Forced conversion is not a protected right.

🛠️ State Intervention

The State can regulate secular aspects of religion and enforce Social Reform (e.g., opening temples to all castes). Here, “Hindu” includes Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists.

📖 Landmark Judgments

Stainislaus Case: No right to convert others. M.C. Mehta: Established Child Labour Welfare Fund. Triple Talaq: Declared non-essential practice.

Pro Tip While Article 23 can be restricted for “Public Purposes” (like military drafts), Article 24 is absolute for children under 14 in hazardous work.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (13-January-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 13, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Setback in Space: Failed PSLV-C62 Mission

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Science and Technology; Awareness in the fields of Space).

Context: ISRO’s PSLV-C62 mission, carrying the EOS-NI strategic satellite, failed on January 12 due to a third-stage anomaly.

Key Points:

The Anomaly: ISRO confirmed a “roll rate disturbance” near the end of the third stage (PS3), leading to an uncontrolled spin and subsequent flight path deviation.
Repeated Failure: This is the second consecutive failure of the PSLV; a similar third-stage issue occurred during the PSLV-C61 mission in May 2025.
Strategic Loss: The primary payload, EOS-NI, was an earth observation satellite built by DRDO for Specified strategic applications.
Financial Fallout: Strategic satellite losses are borne by the state, but private co-passengers rely on insurance for “total loss”.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Achievements of Indians in S&T,” “Indigenization,” and “Challenges in Space Exploration.”

Detailed Analysis:

Quality Assurance Crisis: Because the PSLV uses mature, proven technology, back-to-back failures suggest systemic lapses in quality assurance protocols rather than design flaws.
Transparency and Scrutiny: After the 2025 failure, the Failure Analysis Committee (FAC) report was submitted to the PMO but kept classified. The editorial argues that bypassing external scrutiny hindered effective fixes before the C62 launch.
Commercial Reputation: As ISRO markets the PSLV through NewSpace India Limited (NSIL), consecutive failures may cause international insurance premiums to skyrocket, making the vehicle less competitive globally.

2. India and ‘Pax Silica’: A New Tech Alliance

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Bilateral groupings and agreements involving India).

Context: Incoming U.S. Ambassador Sergio Gor announced that India will be invited to join “Pax Silica” next month.

Key Points:

The Alliance: A U.S.-led arrangement focusing on strategic cooperation in semiconductors, critical minerals, and artificial intelligence.
Strategic Partners: India will join existing invitees, including Japan, Australia, South Korea, Singapore, the UAE, Israel, and the Netherlands.
Diplomatic Context: The invitation comes as India and the U.S. navigate trade tensions, including a 50% tariff on Indian goods and disagreements over Russian oil imports.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Effect of Policies of Developed Countries,” “Indo-U.S. Ties,” and “Critical Technology Governance.”

Detailed Analysis:

Filling the Gap: India was notably missing from the initial launch in Washington in December; its inclusion now signals a strategic necessity to integrate the world’s most populous nation into global high-tech supply chains.
Trade Negotiation Catalyst: The invite may provide the necessary momentum to resolve the long-delayed India-U.S. trade deal, which stalled under punitive tariff measures.
Ambassadorial Strategy: Incoming Ambassador Gor is also the Special Envoy for South and Central Asia, indicating that tech cooperation will be coupled with broader regional stability efforts in Pakistan and Bangladesh.

3. Early Childhood Care: Key to ‘Viksit Bharat’

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Social Justice; Issues relating to Health and Education).

Context: An editorial advocating for a national mission on Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) to secure India’s future as a $30 trillion economy.

Key Points:

The 3,000-Day Window: The first 1,000 days from conception are critical for brain architecture (80-85% of development), followed by 2,000 days that shape social and cognitive skills.
Economic Rationale: Investment in ECCD is a strategic economic move that reduces future spending on remedial education and healthcare while expanding the productive tax base.
Universal Approach: The author argues for universal rather than targeted ECCD, noting that children from all income levels face risks like screen exposure and obesity.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Human Capital Formation,” “Public Health Policy,” and “Sustainable Development Goals.”

Detailed Analysis:

The ‘Big Missing Window’: Formal interventions currently begin around 30-36 months (Anganwadis), but the first 1,000 days—where neglect is often irreversible—remain a significant policy gap.
Integrated Framework: A proposed ECCD mission would require functional coordination between the Ministries of Health, Education, and Women & Child Development to break existing “silos”.
Parental Empowerment: A key pillar is nationwide parental education on responsive caregiving and early stimulation, which can be as cost-effective as immunization.

4. Reimagining Higher Education Regulation

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Governance; Education Policy).

Context: Analysis of the Viksit Bharat Shiksha Adhishthan Bill, 2025, which aims to unify and modernize the oversight of Indian higher education.

Key Points:

Unified Body: The Bill proposes repealing the UGC, AICTE, and NCTE Acts to create a single umbrella body, the Viksit Bharat Shiksha Adhishthan.
Role Separation: It creates three distinct councils for regulation, accreditation, and standards to improve credibility and reduce conflicts of interest.
Transparency Model: Envisages a technology-enabled single-window system based on public self-disclosure of finances, outcomes, and faculty data.

UPSC Relevance: Key for “Educational Reforms,” “Governance and Accountability,” and “NEP 2020 Implementation.”

Detailed Analysis:

“Light but Tight”: The Bill aligns with NEP 2020 by reducing the “maze of approvals” and inspections that pull institutions away from research, while maintaining high standards.
Differentiated Autonomy: It allows well-performing institutions greater freedom, using autonomy as a tool for excellence rather than a one-size-fits-all model.
Student Empowerment: By providing robust grievance redress and quality feedback mechanisms, students become active stakeholders who can demand better institutional outcomes.

5. Bhoomi: A Governance Success Story at 25

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Governance; E-governance; Policies and interventions).

Context: Karnataka’s Bhoomi project, which digitised land records, completes 25 years in 2025, offering lessons for other States.

Key Points:

Ending Discretion: Launched in 2000, its goal was to replace discretion with rules and computerise the handwritten records maintained by village accountants.
Scale of Impact: Over 25 years, more than 39.8 crore RTCs (Record of Rights, Tenancy, and Crops) have been issued to 3.5 crore farmers.
Integrated Ecosystem: Bhoomi today functions as a digital ecosystem, integrated with registration systems (Kaveri), surveys (Mojini), and welfare schemes like PM-Kisan.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “E-governance and Development,” “Land Reforms,” and “Administrative Reform Case Studies.”

Detailed Analysis:

Cultural Shift: Success required large-scale capacity building, training nearly 18,000 personnel to abandon manual systems in favor of digital ones.
Reducing Corruption: By linking registration with land records, the project sharply reduced fraudulent transactions and eliminated middlemen.
Experiential Achievement: Beyond technology, the project’s most significant achievement is strengthening trust in public institutions by making revenue administration more predictable.

Editorial Analysis

Jan 13, 2026

GS-3 Space

🚀 PSLV-C62: Systems Failure Analysis

Second consecutive failure due to Roll Rate Disturbance in Stage-3. Loss: Strategic satellite EOS-NI. Critique: Keeping failure reports “classified” prevents external peer review, risking ISRO’s commercial reputation in the Global Launch Market.

GS-2 IR

💻 ‘Pax Silica’ & High-Tech Diplomacy

India invited to join a U.S.-led bloc for Semiconductors and AI. Strategic move: Integrating India into global supply chains to bypass trade tensions. Opportunity: Leveraging tech-ties to resolve the punitive 50% Tariff deadlock on Indian exports.

GS-2 Social

👶 ECCD: The 3,000-Day Critical Path

Brain architecture is 80-85% complete in the first 1,000 days. National Mission needed to bridge the “missing window” before age 3. Focus: Universal Early Childhood care to ensure sustainable Human Capital Formation for Viksit Bharat.

GS-2 Edu

🎓 Reforming Higher Ed Regulation

Viksit Bharat Shiksha Adhishthan Bill seeks to unify UGC, AICTE, and NCTE. Structural shift: Differentiating regulation from accreditation. Goal: Moving toward a “Light but Tight” oversight based on public self-disclosure and differentiated autonomy.

GS-2 E-Gov

📜 Bhoomi at 25: Land Record Success

Karnataka’s digitisation milestone: 39.8 Crore RTCs issued. Administrative shift: Replacing manual discretion with automated rules. Integrated ecosystem links records with Kaveri (Registration) and PM-Kisan, slashing rural corruption.

Mapping:

Today’s mapping notes focus on Renewable Energy Resources (Solar and Wind Parks), National Waterways, and Major Dam Projects across the Indian subcontinent.

1. Renewable Energy: Solar and Wind Parks

India has significantly expanded its renewable energy capacity, focusing on states with high solar radiation and strong wind currents.

Solar Power Parks:
- Bhadla Solar Park (Rajasthan): Currently one of the largest solar parks in the world, located in the arid Thar Desert region.
- Pavagada Solar Park (Karnataka): A massive solar installation located in the Tumakuru district of Southern India.
- Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park (Andhra Pradesh): A major operational park contributing to the southern grid.
Wind Energy Hubs:
- Muppandal Wind Farm (Tamil Nadu): The largest operational onshore wind farm in India, taking advantage of the wind speeds in the Kanyakumari region.
- Jaisalmer Wind Park (Rajasthan): One of the largest wind farms in the country, utilizing the vast open spaces of Western Rajasthan.

2. National Waterways (NW)

Inland water transport is an economical and environment-friendly mode of transport. The government has declared several rivers as National Waterways.

NW-1 (Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly): Connects Allahabad (Prayagraj) to Haldia; it is the longest and most important waterway, flowing through the historic Magadha region.
NW-2 (Brahmaputra): Connects Sadiya to Dhubri in the North-East (Assam).
NW-3 (West Coast Canal): Located in Kerala, connecting Kottapuram to Kollam.
NW-4 (Godavari-Krishna): Connects Kakinada to Puducherry along the eastern coast.

3. Major Dam Projects and Reservoirs

Dams are multi-purpose projects used for irrigation, electricity generation, and flood control.

Bhakra Nangal Dam (Himachal Pradesh/Punjab): Built on the Sutlej River, it is one of the highest gravity dams in the world and crucial for the Punjab region.
Tehri Dam (Uttarakhand): The highest dam in India, located on the Bhagirathi River.
Hirakud Dam (Odisha): One of the longest earthen dams in the world, built across the Mahanadi River.
Sardar Sarovar Dam (Gujarat): Located on the Narmada River, providing water and power to Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (Telangana/Andhra Pradesh): One of the largest masonry dams, built across the Krishna River.

Summary Mapping Table

Category	Key Highlight	Geographic Focus
Largest Solar Park	Bhadla Solar Park	Rajasthan (West)
Longest Waterway	NW-1 (Ganga River)	North/East India
Highest Dam	Tehri Dam	Uttarakhand (Himalayas)
Longest Dam	Hirakud Dam	Odisha (East Coast)

Sustainable Horizons

Clean Energy

☀️ Solar & Wind Parks

From the world-class Bhadla Solar Park in the Thar Desert to the massive Muppandal Wind Farm near Kanyakumari, India’s energy map is turning green.

Mission: Locate the Pavagada Solar Park in Karnataka and compare its climate to the Thar Desert’s arid region.

Navigation

🛶 National Waterways

Inland transport thrives on rivers like the Ganga (NW-1), the Brahmaputra (NW-2), and the West Coast Canal (NW-3) in Kerala.

Mission: Trace the course of NW-1 from Prayagraj to Haldia on a map of the North-Eastern plains.

Engineering

🏗️ Major Dam Projects

Multi-purpose giants like Tehri (Highest), Hirakud (Longest), and Bhakra Nangal serve as the lifelines for irrigation and electricity.

Mission: Identify the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the Narmada River and note the states it provides water to.

Mapping Summary

Category	Key Highlight	Geographic Focus
Solar Energy	Bhadla Solar Park	Rajasthan (Thar Desert)
Inland Water	NW-1 (Ganga)	Prayagraj to Haldia
Highest Dam	Tehri Dam	Uttarakhand (Bhagirathi)
Wind Power	Muppandal Farm	Tamil Nadu (Southern Tip)

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 12 Jan 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 6 Chapter-10 (Traders, Kings and Pilgrims)

Chapter 10, “Traders, Kings and Pilgrims,” explores how the movement of goods, people, and ideas shaped the ancient world, connecting India with distant empires like Rome and China.

1. Trade and Traders

Historians find evidence of trade through archaeological finds and literature.

Northern Black Polished Ware: This fine pottery was found at numerous sites across the subcontinent, likely carried there by traders from its place of manufacture.
South Indian Treasures: South India was famous for gold, precious stones, and spices like pepper. Pepper was so highly valued in the Roman Empire that it was called “black gold”.
Sea Routes: Traders used monsoon winds to cross the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal quickly. For example, they sailed with the south-west monsoon to reach India’s western coast from Africa or Arabia.
The Silk Route:
- Origin: Silk-making techniques were invented in China about 7,000 years ago and kept secret for millennia.
- Demand: About 2,000 years ago, silk became a high-fashion status symbol for the rich in Rome.
- Control: Rulers, especially the Kushanas, tried to control the Silk Route to collect taxes, tributes, and gifts from traders.

2. New Coastal Kingdoms

In South India, powerful chiefs controlled fertile river valleys and coastlines.

The Three Chiefs: The Tamil word muvendar referred to the heads of three ruling families: the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, who became powerful around 2,300 years ago.
Centers of Power: Each chief had two centers—one inland and one coastal. The most important were Puhar (Chola port) and Madurai (Pandya capital).
Wealth: These chiefs did not collect regular taxes but received gifts and tribute. They rewarded poets, who in turn wrote songs in their praise recorded in Sangam literature.
Satavahanas: Powerful in western India around 2,100 years ago, their greatest ruler was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. These rulers were known as “Lords of the dakshinapatha” (the route to the south).

3. The Spread of Buddhism

Under the Kushana ruler Kanishka (c. 1,900 years ago), Buddhism entered a new phase.

Mahayana Buddhism: A new form that introduced two major changes:
1. Statues of Buddha: Instead of using symbols (like a peepal treefor enlightenment), artists began making actual statues of the Buddha.
2. Bodhisattvas: Belief in enlightened beings who stayed in the world to teach and help others rather than living in isolation.
Expansion:
- Regional Spread: Buddhism spread to Central Asia, China, Korea, and Japan.
- Theravada Buddhism: This older form of Buddhism remained more popular in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.

4. The Quest of Pilgrims

Chinese Buddhist pilgrims traveled to India to visit holy places and study famous monasteries.

Famous Pilgrims: Fa Xian (1,600 years ago), Xuan Zang (1,400 years ago), and I-Qing traveled with traders and recorded the dangers of their journeys.
Nalanda University: Xuan Zang studied at Nalanda (Bihar), a unique center of learning where teachers were highly talented and the rules were very strict.
Manuscripts: Xuan Zang carried back over 600 manuscripts and spent the rest of his life translating them from Sanskrit to Chinese.

5. The Beginning of Bhakti

The concept of Bhakti became a central feature of Hinduism during this period.

Core Deities: Worship focused on gods like Shiva, Vishnu, and goddesses like Durga.
Equality in Devotion: Bhakti emphasized a person’s individual devotion to a chosen deity and was open to everyone, regardless of caste, wealth, or gender.
The Bhagavad Gita: The ideas of Bhakti are found in this sacred text, where Krishna asks Arjuna to take refuge in him.
Pure Heart: Followers believed that if a deity was worshipped with a pure heart, the deity would appear in whatever form the devotee desired.
Artistic Legacy: This devotion inspired beautiful sculptures, poetry, and the building of early temples.

🧭 Traders, Kings & Pilgrims

🚢 Trade & Silk

South Indian pepper was so prized in Rome it was called Black Gold. Traders used monsoon winds to cross seas, while the Kushanas controlled the Silk Route to collect taxes and tribute.

👑 The Three Chiefs

The Muvendar (Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas) ruled the South 2,300 years ago. They controlled vital ports like Puhar and were praised in Sangam Literature for their generosity.

☸️ Spread of Buddhism

Under King Kanishka, Buddhism shifted to Mahayana, featuring Buddha statues and Bodhisattvas. Pilgrims like Xuan Zang later traveled to study at Nalanda University.

🙏 The Path of Bhakti

A shift toward individual devotion to a chosen deity (Bhakti). Open to all regardless of caste or gender, these ideas were popularized in the Bhagavad Gita.

Pilgrim Fact Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang spent years at Nalanda and carried back 600+ manuscripts to China on 20 horses!

📂

Class-6 History Chapter-10 PDF

Complete Study Notes: Traders, Kings and Pilgrims

Download Now

⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 20, 21 and 22

While the preceding articles (14–19) establish equality and basic freedoms, Articles 20, 21, and 22 provide specific legal protections. They act as a safeguard against the arbitrary power of the State to arrest, convict, or deprive an individual of their life and liberty.

1. Article 20: Protection in Respect of Conviction for Offences

Article 20 is a vital safeguard for any person (citizen or foreigner) accused of a crime. It sets the ground rules for how the State can prosecute and punish.

Three Key Protections

Ex-Post-Facto Law [Art 20(1)]: A person cannot be convicted for an act that was not a crime at the time it was committed. Furthermore, the penalty cannot be greater than what was prescribed by the law at the time of the offence.
- Note: This only applies to criminal laws, not civil or tax laws.
Double Jeopardy [Art 20(2)]: No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once.
- Restriction: This protection applies only to proceedings before a court of law or judicial tribunal, not departmental or administrative inquiries.
Prohibition against Self-Incrimination [Art 20(3)]: No person accused of an offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
- Scope: This includes both oral and documentary evidence. However, it does not protect against giving thumb impressions, blood samples, or specimen signatures.

2. Article 21: Protection of Life and Personal Liberty

Article 21 is the most significant article in the Constitution. It states: “No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.”

The “Maneka Gandhi” Revolution (1978)

Initially, in the A.K. Gopalan case (1950), the Supreme Court took a narrow view, saying Article 21 only protected against arbitrary executive action. If a law existed, the court wouldn’t question if that law was “fair.”

However, in Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978), the Court radically changed its stance:

The Golden Triangle: It ruled that Articles 14, 19, and 21 are not separate but form a “Golden Triangle.” Any law depriving liberty must satisfy all three.
Procedure must be “Fair”: The “procedure established by law” must not be arbitrary or oppressive; it must be just, fair, and reasonable. This introduced the American concept of “Due Process” into Indian law.

Expanded Rights under Article 21

Through judicial activism, the SC has included several “implied” rights under Article 21:

Right to Live with Dignity (Francis Coralie v. Delhi)
Right to Privacy (K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India, 2017)
Right to Livelihood (Olga Tellis v. BMC)
Right to Free Legal Aid and Speedy Trial
Right to a Clean Environment

3. Article 22: Protection Against Arrest and Detention

Article 22 provides procedural safeguards to persons who are arrested. It divides detention into two categories: Punitive (after a crime is committed) and Preventive (to prevent a future crime).

Rights under Ordinary (Punitive) Detention

Right to be informed of the grounds of arrest as soon as possible.
Right to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of choice.
Right to be produced before a Magistrate within 24 hours (excluding travel time).
Right to release after 24 hours unless the Magistrate authorizes further detention.

Preventive Detention [The “Necessary Evil”]

India is one of the few democratic countries with a constitutional provision for preventive detention even during peacetime.

Time Limit: A person cannot be detained for more than 3 months unless an Advisory Board (consisting of High Court judges) finds sufficient cause for extension.
Rights of the Detenu: The grounds of detention must be communicated to the person (unless it’s against public interest), and they must be given the earliest opportunity to make a representation against the order.

Comparison Summary Table

Feature	Article 20	Article 21	Article 22
Focus	Rights of the Accused during trial.	General Right to Life & Liberty.	Rights of the Arrested person.
Key Principle	No Double Jeopardy / Self-Incrimination.	Procedure must be Fair and Just.	24-hour Magistrate rule.
Suspension	Cannot be suspended even during Emergency.	Cannot be suspended even during Emergency.	Can be restricted during Emergency/Preventive laws.

⚖️ Articles 20, 21 & 22

⚖️ Art 20: Rights of Accused

Protects against: 1. Ex-Post-Facto Law (no retroactive punishment), 2. Double Jeopardy (no double punishment), 3. Self-Incrimination (no forced confession).

🌱 Art 21: Life & Liberty

The most expansive right. Post-Maneka Gandhi (1978), law must be Just, Fair, and Reasonable. It forms the “Golden Triangle” with Articles 14 and 19.

📖 Implied Rights (Art 21)

Judiciary has expanded Art 21 to include the Right to Privacy, Right to Dignity, Clean Environment, Livelihood, and Free Legal Aid.

🚔 Art 22: Punitive Arrest

Mandates: 1. Information on grounds of arrest, 2. Right to legal counsel, 3. Production before a Magistrate within 24 hours.

🔒 Preventive Detention

Detention to prevent future crimes. Max 3 Months unless an Advisory Board extends it. The detenu must be allowed to make a representation against the order.

🛡️ Absolute Protection

Following the 44th Amendment, Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended even during a National Emergency, serving as the ultimate check on State power.

Legal Insight While Article 21 protects against arbitrary Executive and Legislative action, Article 22 provides the specific procedural steps to ensure those protections are realized.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (12-January-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 12, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Frozen Flow: The Source Code Conflict

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Internal Security; Cyber Security; Science and Technology- developments and their applications).

Context: The Union government is moving toward imposing security requirements on smartphone manufacturers, including a demand for “vulnerability analysis” that may involve access to device source codes.

Key Points:

Indian Telecom Security Assurance Requirements: The draft proposes 83 security standards that manufacturers like Apple and Samsung must meet to ensure devices are not compromised by state-sponsored actors.
Log Retention: The policy mandates that device makers maintain a one-year log of all device activities for security audits.
Malware Scanning: Proposed standards include a requirement for automatic, periodic malware scanning at the hardware and software levels.
Industry Objections: Tech giants argue that sharing source code—the “brain” of the device—poses a significant intellectual property risk and could lead to new vulnerabilities if the government labs are breached.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for topics related to “Data Sovereignty,” “National Security vs. Privacy,” and “Challenges in the Telecom Sector.”

Detailed Analysis:

Technical Sovereignty: The government argues that as smartphones become the primary interface for banking and e-governance, relying on “black box” proprietary software is a national security risk.
Privacy Concerns: Mandatory log retention and automatic scanning raise significant concerns regarding Article 21 and the right to privacy, as established in the Puttaswamy judgment.
Global Precedent: Industry groups claim no other democratic nation requires the disclosure of smartphone source code for commercial sale, warning that such measures could lead to India being excluded from global tech release cycles.

2. Reimagining Delimitation: The Southern Challenge

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Polity and Governance; Federal Structure; Representation of People Act; Issues and challenges pertaining to the federal structure).

Context: An analysis of the potential political and fiscal marginalization of southern States in the upcoming delimitation exercise and proposed structural remedies.

Key Points:

The Population Penalty: Southern States that successfully implemented population control measures face the prospect of losing a significant percentage of their relative seats in the Lok Sabha to more populous northern States.
Digressive Proportionality: The author suggests adopting the European Parliament’s model, which ensures that while larger populations get more seats, the ratio for smaller regions is higher to prevent total domination.
Rajya Sabha Reform: A proposal is made to reorganize the Rajya Sabha to grant equal representation to all States, similar to the U.S. Senate, to protect the federal balance.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Federalism,” “Delimitation Challenges,” and “Demographic Dividend vs. Representation.”

Detailed Analysis:

Fiscal Linkage: Since delimitation is often linked to Finance Commission devolution, a loss in political weight usually translates to a loss in fiscal resources, creating a “performance penalty” for developed States.
The 866-Seat Model: The author discusses a model where the total number of seats is increased to ensure no State loses its current number of seats, though the relative power of southern States would still decrease.
Constitutional Crisis: Without a consensus-based solution, delimitation could trigger a deep North-South political divide, challenging the “Union of States” concept.

3. Faster is Not Fairer: The POCSO Paradox

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Social Justice; Issues relating to children; Criminal Justice System).

Context: An editorial reviewing the performance of Fast-Track Special Courts (FTSCs) under the POCSO Act, noting that higher disposal rates have not led to higher conviction rates.

Key Points:

Disposal vs. Conviction: In 2025, India achieved a record 109% disposal rate in POCSO cases, but conviction rates fell to 29% from a high of 35% in previous years.
Systemic Weaknesses: Hurried investigations to meet “disposal quotas” often lead to incomplete chargesheets and hostile witnesses, as victims are not provided adequate support.
Lack of Support Persons: Despite legal mandates, a majority of POCSO cases in States like Tamil Nadu and Bihar proceed without a designated “support person” to guide the child through the trial.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Judicial Reforms,” “Child Protection Laws,” and “Social Justice.”

Detailed Analysis:

The “Clearance Rate” Trap: The editorial critiques the focus on quantitative data (disposal) over qualitative outcomes (justice), arguing that speed should not come at the cost of due process.
Trauma-Informed Justice: There is a critical need to move compensation to an “interim” stage rather than a “post-conviction” stage to ensure children receive immediate rehabilitation.
Forensic Backlogs: Delays in DNA testing and cyber-forensics remain the primary bottleneck, often leading to the acquittal of the accused due to a “benefit of doubt.”

4. Colonial Legacies in Conservation

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Environment and Ecology; Biodiversity Conservation; Issues related to indigenous people).

Context: A critical analysis of the “Fortress Conservation” model and the ongoing marginalization of tribal and indigenous communities in the name of wildlife protection.

Key Points:

Fortress Conservation: This model, inherited from colonial times, treats humans and wildlife as mutually exclusive, often leading to the forced eviction of forest dwellers.
The Tiger vs. Tribal Conflict: The article highlights the urban-rural divide in empathy, where the death of a “celebrity” tiger sparks national outrage, but the killing of local villagers by wild animals is often ignored.
Inclusive Conservation: Researchers propose a new framework that integrates the territorial rights of indigenous peoples into biodiversity management strategies.

UPSC Relevance: Key for “Human-Wildlife Conflict,” “Forest Rights Act (FRA) 2006,” and “Sustainable Development.”

Detailed Analysis:

Guardians of the Forest: Evidence suggests that forest areas managed by indigenous communities often have higher biodiversity levels than state-protected parks.
The “Othering” of Locals: The editorial critiques the criminalization of traditional practices like small-scale grazing or honey collection, which are often less damaging than the eco-tourism infrastructure permitted by the state.
Global Goals: For the “30 by 30” global biodiversity goal (protecting 30% of land and sea by 2030) to succeed, it must be based on “Rights-Based Conservation.”

5. India’s Maritime Policy: Evolution and Strategy

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Security; Challenges to internal security; Blue Economy).

Context: A scholarly review of India’s maritime strategy through the lenses of history, economics, and technology, as explored in the Routledge Handbook of Maritime India.

Key Points:

Net Security Provider: The Indian Navy transitioned from an observer to a net security provider by playing a stellar role in curbing piracy in the Arabian Sea during the early 2000s.
Sino-Indian Rivalry: Experts recommend extensive bilateral discussions to establish rules of engagement on the high seas to prevent a “clash of interests”.
Indo-Pacific Salience: While the concept has dominated discourse, its focus is being slightly eroded by crises in other geographies like Ukraine, Gaza, and the Red Sea.
Technological Frontiers: Future strategy must focus on “Underwater Domain Awareness” (UDA) and the “Blue Economy revolution”.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Maritime Security,” “National Security Strategy,” and “Blue Economy Policies.”

Detailed Analysis:

Historical Legacy: The handbook traces India’s outward reach from the “Nautical Tigers” (Cholas) to the Indo-Arab trade routes.
U.S. Influence Risks: Comparative analysis suggests that a “zero-sum game” may be evolving in the region due to U.S. influence, necessitating joint consultative mechanisms for maritime development.
Refining Strategy: India needs to refine its Indo-Pacific vision in light of the U.S. National Security Strategy 2025, which takes a softer view of China as an economic competitor.

Editorial Analysis

Jan 12, 2026

GS-3 Security

📱 Smartphone Sovereignty & Source Code

Govt proposes 83 security standards for device makers, including “Vulnerability Analysis” of source codes. Conflict: Tech giants cite IP risks, while the State views proprietary software as a “Black Box” national security threat. Policy includes 1-year log retention.

GS-2 Polity

🏛️ Delimitation: The Southern Penalty

Southern states face political marginalization due to successful population control. Solution: Adopting Digressive Proportionality and reforming the Rajya Sabha for equal state representation. The goal is to prevent a demographic Performance Penalty in a 866-seat model.

GS-2 Social

⚖️ POCSO Paradox: Speed vs. Substance

FTSCs achieved record 109% Disposal Rate, yet conviction fell to 29%. Hurried investigations to meet quotas lead to incomplete evidence. Critical need: Moving compensation to an interim stage and ensuring mandatory Support Persons for victims.

GS-3 Environ.

🐅 Colonial Legacies in Conservation

Analysis of “Fortress Conservation” which treats humans and wildlife as mutually exclusive. Contrast: Indigenous-managed areas often show higher biodiversity. Call for Rights-Based Conservation to meet the global “30 by 30” goal without displacing forest dwellers.

GS-3 Security

⚓ Maritime India: The Net Security Role

Transition from observer to Net Security Provider in the Arabian Sea. Strategic focus shift: Establishing rules of engagement to avoid a Sino-Indian clash and scaling up Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA) to secure the Blue Economy.

Mapping:

For today’s mapping notes, we will focus on India’s Power Plants (Thermal and Nuclear), Major Industrial Clusters, and International Airports.

1. Power Plants: Thermal and Nuclear

India relies on a mix of energy sources to power its growing economy. These plants are strategically located near fuel sources or water bodies.

Nuclear Power Plants: These use uranium to generate electricity and are often located near water for cooling.
- Narora (Uttar Pradesh): Located in the northern plains.
- Rawatbhata (Rajasthan): Situated near the Rana Pratap Sagar dam.
- Kakrapar (Gujarat): Located in the western industrial belt.
- Tarapur (Maharashtra): India’s first commercial nuclear power station.
- Kaiga (Karnataka): Located in the southern western ghats region.
- Kudankulam & Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu): Major hubs in South India.
Thermal Power Plants: These burn coal, oil, or gas.
- Namrup (Assam): A major gas-based plant in the North-East.
- Singrauli (Madhya Pradesh): One of India’s largest coal-based plants.
- Ramagundam (Telangana): A critical power hub for the southern region.

2. Major Industrial Clusters

Industrial clusters are regions where industries are concentrated due to the availability of raw materials, labor, and transport.

Mumbai-Pune Cluster: A massive hub for automobiles, chemicals, and textiles.
Hugli Cluster (West Bengal): Historically famous for jute and now for engineering and chemicals.
Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Cluster: India’s primary hub for Information Technology (IT), electronics, and aeronautics.
Gujarat Cluster: Centered around Ahmedabad and Vadodara, famous for textiles and petrochemicals.
Chhota Nagpur Region: Known as the mineral heartland, focusing on heavy iron and steel industries.

3. International Airports of India

Airports serve as the “gateways” for global connectivity and trade.

Indira Gandhi International (Delhi): The busiest airport in India, serving the capital region.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International (Mumbai): The primary gateway for Western India.
Meenambakkam (Chennai): A major hub for South-East Asian connectivity.
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose (Kolkata): The main gateway for Eastern and North-Eastern India.
Rajiv Gandhi International (Hyderabad): Known for its advanced cargo and pharmaceutical handling.

Summary Mapping Table

Category	Key Highlight	Geographic Location
Oldest Nuclear Plant	Tarapur	Maharashtra
IT Industrial Hub	Bangalore	Karnataka
Busiest Airport	Delhi (IGI)	North India
Iron & Steel Hub	Chhota Nagpur	East India

Power & Industry

Energy Hubs

⚡ Power Generation

India’s energy backbone consists of Nuclear plants like Tarapur and Narora, alongside massive Thermal plants such as Singrauli and Ramagundam.

Mission: Locate Rawatbhata in Rajasthan and note its proximity to the Rana Pratap Sagar dam for cooling water.

Manufacturing

🏭 Industrial Clusters

Strategic concentrations like the Mumbai-Pune automobile belt, the Bangalore-TN IT hub, and the Chhota Nagpur mineral heartland.

Mission: Identify the Hugli cluster in West Bengal and research its historical association with the jute industry.

Connectivity

✈️ Global Gateways

Major international airports like IGI (Delhi) and Meenambakkam (Chennai) act as critical nodes for international trade, pharma, and passenger transit.

Mission: Find the Rajiv Gandhi International Airport and identify its specialized role in handling global pharmaceuticals.

Mapping Summary

Category	Key Highlight	Geographic Focus
Nuclear Energy	Tarapur (Oldest)	Maharashtra Coast
IT/Electronics	Bangalore Hub	Southern Plateau
Aviation	IGI Delhi (Busiest)	North India
Heavy Industry	Chhota Nagpur	Eastern Mineral Belt

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 10 Jan 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 6 Chapter-9 (Vital Villages, Thriving Towns)

This chapter, “Vital Villages, Thriving Towns,” examines the growth of agriculture, the structure of village society, and the rise of early cities and trade networks in the Indian subcontinent.

1. Agricultural Revolution: Iron and Irrigation

The foundation of powerful kingdoms was the existence of flourishing villages. Two main factors drove agricultural growth starting about 2,500 years ago:

Growing Use of Iron: While iron use began 3,000 years ago, its use expanded significantly 2,500 years ago. Tools included axes for clearing forests and the iron ploughshare, which was crucial for increasing production in heavy soils.
Irrigation Works: Kings and rulers invested in irrigation to ensure certain crop production. These works included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.
Economic Cycle: Increased production allowed farmers to pay taxes, which in turn funded the king’s armies and palaces.

2. Village Social Structure

Societies in both the North and South were clearly stratified into three main groups:

The Tamil South

Vellalar: These were the large landowners.
Uzhavar: Ordinary ploughmen.
Kadaisiyar and Adimai: Landless labourers and slaves.

The Northern Subcontinent

Grama Bhojaka: The village headman, often the largest landowner. The post was hereditary. He was powerful; he collected taxes for the king and functioned as a judge or policeman.
Grihapatis: Independent farmers who were mostly smaller landowners.
Dasa Karmakara: Men and women who did not own land and had to work on the fields of others.

Region	Category	Description
Southern (Tamil)	Vellalar	Large landowners.
	Uzhavar	Ordinary ploughmen.
	Kadaisiyar/Adimai	Landless labourers and slaves.
Northern	Grama bhojaka	Hereditary village headman and often the largest landowner; functioned as a tax collector, judge, and policeman.
	Grihapatis	Independent farmers, mostly small landowners.
	Dasa karmakara	Landless men and women who worked on others’ fields.

3. The Rise of Cities and Urban Life

Archaeologists and historians use several types of evidence to understand early cities:

Jatakas: Stories composed by ordinary people and preserved by Buddhist monks, providing glimpses into city life.
Archaeological Finds:
- Ring Wells: Rows of pots or ceramic rings arranged on top of each other, used as toilets, drains, or garbage dumps in individual houses.
- Punch-marked Coins: The earliest coins, in use for about 500 years, stamped with symbols on silver or copper.
Sculpture: Scenes depicting daily life in towns, villages, and forests were carved to decorate gateways and pillars.

4. Cities with Specific Functions

Some cities became famous for specific roles:

Mathura: An important settlement for over 2,500 years. It was a trade crossroads (North-West to East and North to South), a center for fine sculpture, and a religious hub for Buddhism, Jainism, and Krishna worship.
Barygaza (Bharuch): A narrow gulf port where experienced local fishermen steered in ships. Imports included wine and gold/silver coins, while exports included Himalayan plants, ivory, silk, and cotton.
Arikamedu: A coastal settlement in Puducherry. It was an international trade center where Roman goods like amphorae (wine jars) and Arretine Ware (stamped Italian pottery) were found.

5. Crafts and Commerce: The Shrenis

Craft production was highly organized, especially in cloth manufacture (centers like Varanasi and Madurai).

Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): A hard, metallic-looking pottery with a mirror-like black shine.
Shrenis: Associations formed by crafts persons and merchants.
- They provided training and procured raw materials.
- They organized trade and served as banks where the wealthy deposited money.
- Interest from these deposits supported religious institutions like monasteries.
Coins: Punch-marked coins, made of silver or copper and stamped with symbols, were the earliest coins used for about 500 years.

6. Rules for Spinning and Weaving

The Arthashastra provided strict guidelines for workshops:

Widows, the differently-abled, and retired servants were employed to process wool, cotton, and silk.
Women who could not leave home sent maid-servants to get raw materials.
Officials were punished for misconduct, and women were fined for incomplete work.

🌾 Vital Villages & Thriving Towns

🚜 Agricultural Growth

Expansion was driven by Iron Tools (axes and ploughshares) and state-funded Irrigation (canals and wells). This increased production allowed farmers to pay taxes to the kings.

🏘️ Social Hierarchy

In the North, the Grama Bhojaka (headman) was powerful. In the Tamil South, society included Vellalar (landowners), Uzhavar (ploughmen), and landless Adimai.

🏺 Urban Evidence

Cities featured Ring Wells (for drainage) and NBPW Pottery (metallic-black shine). Wealth was traded using Punch-marked Coins—the earliest silver/copper currency.

⚓ Trade & Guilds

Mathura was a major crossroads and religious hub. Shrenis (associations of craftsmen) acted as banks, provided training, and organized large-scale trade.

Archaeology Findings at Arikamedu (Roman pottery & amphorae) prove that ancient India had extensive maritime trade links with the Mediterranean 2,000 years ago.

📂

Class-6 History Chapter-9 PDF

Complete Study Notes: Vital Villages, Thriving Towns

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⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 17, 18 and 19

While Articles 17 and 18 remove the social barriers of the past, Article 19 provides the positive “freedoms” that allow a citizen to participate in a democracy.

1. Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability

Article 17 is a historic provision aimed at ending one of the most deep-rooted social evils in India. It is a “Social Revolution” encapsulated in a single sentence.

Key Legal Aspects

Absolute Nature: Unlike most Fundamental Rights, Article 17 is absolute. There are no “reasonable restrictions.” It cannot be practiced under any pretext (religion, tradition, or philosophy).
Self-Executing vs. Statutory Support: While the article declares the practice abolished, it does not prescribe punishments. For this, Parliament enacted:
- The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955: Prescribes punishment for refusing admission to hospitals, temples, or shops based on “untouchability.”
- SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: A more stringent law to prevent hate crimes and provide for special courts.
Vertical and Horizontal Application: It is enforceable not just against the State, but also against private individuals.
Case Law: In People’s Union for Democratic Rights v. Union of India, the SC held that it is the State’s constitutional obligation to take necessary steps to ensure these rights aren’t violated by anyone.

The “Untouchability” Definition: The Supreme Court has clarified that Article 17 does not cover social boycotts in general; it specifically targets the practice as it developed historically in the Indian caste system.

2. Article 18: Abolition of Titles

To maintain the democratic character of the Republic, the State is prohibited from creating a “nobility” or a class of citizens with superior status through titles.

The Four Prohibitions

No State Titles: The State cannot confer any title on any person (citizen or foreigner). Exceptions: Military and Academic distinctions (e.g., General, Major, Doctor, Professor).
Acceptance of Foreign Titles: No citizen of India can accept a title from any foreign state.
Foreigners in State Office: A foreigner holding an “office of profit” under the Indian Government cannot accept a foreign title without the President’s consent.
Foreign Presents/Emoluments: No person holding an office of profit can accept any gift or office from a foreign state without the President’s consent (to prevent foreign influence/corruption).

The Bharat Ratna Controversy

In Balaji Raghavan v. Union of India (1996), the Supreme Court ruled that:

National awards (Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, etc.) are awards, not titles.
They do not violate the principle of equality because they recognize “Merit.”
Crucial Rule: They cannot be used as a prefix (before name) or suffix (after name). Doing so can lead to the forfeiture of the award.

3. Article 19: Protection of Six Fundamental Rights

Article 19 is considered the “Soul of the Constitution.” It guarantees basic democratic freedoms to citizens only (not foreigners or corporations).

The Six Freedoms [Art 19(1)]

Freedom of Speech and Expression: Includes the right to express views via writing, printing, or digital media. It also includes the Right to Information (RTI) and the Freedom of Press.
Freedom of Assembly: Right to assemble peacefully and without arms. (Does not include the right to strike).
Freedom of Association: Right to form unions, societies, or Co-operative Societies (97th Amendment).
Freedom of Movement: Right to move freely throughout the territory of India.
Freedom of Residence: Right to reside and settle in any part of the country.
Freedom of Profession: Right to practice any profession or carry on any occupation, trade, or business.

Note: Originally, there was a 7th right (Right to Property), but it was deleted by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978.

Reasonable Restrictions [Art 19(2) to 19(6)]

These rights are not absolute. The State can impose “Reasonable Restrictions” on specific grounds to balance individual liberty with social order.

Common Grounds for Restrictions:

Sovereignty and Integrity of India.
Security of the State.
Friendly relations with foreign states.
Public order, Decency, or Morality.
Contempt of Court or Defamation.

Famous Case Law

Bennett Coleman & Co. v. Union of India: Established that “Freedom of the Press” is an integral part of Freedom of Speech.
Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): The Supreme Court struck down Section 66A of the IT Act, ruling that it unconstitutionally restricted the Freedom of Speech online.
K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India: While discussing privacy, it reinforced that individual liberties under Article 19 are interconnected with Article 21 (Life).

Comparison Summary Table

Feature	Article 17	Article 18	Article 19
Primary Goal	Eradicate Social Stigma	Remove Class Hierarchy	Empower Individual Liberty
Applicability	Citizens & Non-citizens	Citizens & Non-citizens	Citizens Only
Exceptions	Absolute: No exceptions allowed.	Qualified: Military/Academic titles allowed.	Restricted: Subject to “Reasonable Restrictions.”

🗳️ Articles 17, 18 & 19

🚫 Art 17: Untouchability

An Absolute Right with no exceptions. Abolishes “Untouchability” in any form. Supported by the Protection of Civil Rights Act (1955) and the SC/ST Act (1989).

🎖️ Art 18: Abolition of Titles

Prohibits the State from conferring titles. Military & Academic distinctions are exempt. National Awards (Bharat Ratna) are permitted but cannot be used as prefixes or suffixes.

🗣️ Art 19: Six Freedoms

Available to Citizens Only. Guarantees rights to: 1. Speech & Expression, 2. Assembly, 3. Association, 4. Movement, 5. Residence, and 6. Profession.

⚖️ Reasonable Restrictions

Freedoms are not absolute. The State can restrict them based on Sovereignty, Security, Public Order, Decency, or Contempt of Court.

🗞️ Press & Property

Freedom of Press is implied under Speech. The Right to Property was deleted as a Fundamental Right by the 44th Amendment (1978).

📖 Landmark Cases

Balaji Raghavan: Validated National Awards. Shreya Singhal: Struck down Sec 66A of IT Act to protect online Free Speech.

Key Takeaway While Art 17 is absolute and applies to everyone, Art 19 is the “Soul of the Constitution” but is reserved exclusively for the citizens of India.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (10-January-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 10, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Enforcement Directives: Weaponising Central Agencies

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Federalism; Important aspects of governance, transparency, and accountability).

Context: A critique of the Enforcement Directorate (ED) raids on the office of the Indian Political Action Committee (I-PAC) and the resulting political confrontation between the Centre and West Bengal.

Key Points:

Political Tooling: The editorial argues that the timing of raids on I-PAC—the consultancy for the Trinamool Congress (TMC)—suggests a pattern of using central agencies to corner political rivals ahead of elections.
Institutional Imbalance: There is a visible trend where agencies like the ED, CBI, and IT Department are “hyperactive” against Opposition-run States but rarely act against the ruling party at the Centre.
Electoral Integrity: Such actions bring into question the fairness of the electoral process and the ability of institutions to maintain a level playing field.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for questions on “Centre-State Relations,” “Electoral Integrity,” and the “Role of Federal Investigative Agencies.”

Detailed Analysis:

The I-PAC Raid: On January 8, the ED searched I-PAC locations in Kolkata as part of a money-laundering probe. Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee intervened, alleging an attempt to “steal her party’s internal strategy” before the 2026 Assembly elections.
Historical Precedents: The piece recalls the freezing of the Congress party’s bank accounts during the 2024 general election as a similar instance of weaponising state power.
Risk to Democracy: The core warning is that stretching the “rules of the game” for political gain risks eroding public confidence in the integrity of state institutions.

2. De-dollarisation Fear: U.S. Moves on Oil

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations) & GS Paper 3 (Economy; Global Trade and Finance).

Context: Analysis of the Russia Sanctions Bill, which empowers the U.S. President to impose up to 500% tariffs on nations buying Russian oil.

Key Points:

Protecting the Petrodollar: The aggressive push for sanctions is viewed as a strategy to protect the U.S. dollar’s centrality in global finance as its hegemony begins to erode.
Circumvention by Major Consumers: Nations like India and China have deepened trading arrangements that circumvent the dollar, such as paying for Russian crude in yuan.
Structural Challenge from China: China’s dominance in the Electric Vehicle (EV) ecosystem is a long-term threat to the traditional economic architectures supported by U.S. oil dominance.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Global Trade Dynamics,” “Energy Diplomacy,” and “Impact of U.S. Foreign Policy on India.”

Detailed Analysis:

The Venezuelan Factor: The recent U.S. seizure of Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro and the focus on Venezuela’s vast oil reserves are cited as evidence of underlying strategic interests.
Geopolitical Recalibration: The editorial argues that U.S. moves are aimed more at curtailing China’s expanding influence in energy markets than at addressing specific geopolitical grievances.
BRICS and Parallel Currencies: The spectre of a parallel currency arrangement contemplated by BRICS further unsettles the traditional dollar-centric financial order.

3. The Phaltan Case: Safeguarding a Victim’s Dignity

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Social Justice; Issues relating to women; Criminal Justice System).

Context: Discussion on the systemic failures in protecting female victims, highlighted by the suicide of a young lady doctor in Phaltan, Maharashtra.

Key Points:

Secondary Victimisation: The article highlights the “second crime”—the public character assassination of victims that often follows their plea for help.
Institutional Failure: Comments by public functionaries, including the Chairperson of the Maharashtra State Commission for Women, using details of the victim’s personal life are labeled as “extra-judicial victim shaming”.
Legal Protections: While laws like the Nirbhaya Act (2013) and BSA, 2023 prohibit using a victim’s character as evidence, social mindsets remain patriarchal.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Women’s Empowerment,” “Criminal Justice Reform,” and “Social Justice.”

Detailed Analysis:

The Case Detail: The doctor alleged rape and harassment by a police official in a note written on her palm before her death.
Proposed Implementation Strategies: The author calls for mandatory training and sensitisation for police and judges, an end to the culture of victim-blaming, and a boost in forensic and digital evidence infrastructure.
Constitutional Morality: The author emphasizes that women in power have a responsibility to uphold the constitutional morality that underpins their roles.

4. Somaliland: A New Strategic Hub

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests).

Context: Analysis of Israel’s December 2025 decision to recognize Somaliland as an independent sovereign state.

Key Points:

Horn of Africa Rupture: Israel’s move marks a significant diplomatic shift that could intensify proxy conflicts and further militarise the Red Sea maritime corridor.
China’s Strategic Dilemma: For Beijing, Somaliland’s recognition challenges its “One China” principle and its security interests in the Bab el-Mandeb Strait.
Internal Stability vs. statehood: Somaliland’s three decades of peace and functioning institutions contrast sharply with Somalia’s chronic insecurity.

UPSC Relevance: Key for “West Asian Geopolitics,” “Indo-Pacific and Red Sea Security,” and “China’s Global Strategy.”

Detailed Analysis:

The Taiwan Factor: Somaliland’s official ties with Taipei (since 2020) have turned it into a regional outlier and a challenge to Chinese influence.
Alternative Logistics Hub: Recognition may allow Somaliland to emerge as an alternative security and logistics hub near China’s military base in Djibouti.
Diplomatic Balancing: Beijing is forced into an uncomfortable act between its sovereignty principles and the pragmatic reality of Somaliland’s de facto statehood.

5. Special Intensive Revision (SIR): The Disenfranchised

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Electoral Reforms; Constitutional Bodies; Citizenship).

Context: A detailed report on the Special Intensive Revision of electoral rolls in West Bengal, which has seen the deletion of 58 lakh names in its first phase.

Key Points:

Scale and Criteria: Nationwide, Conducted across 12 States and UTs, there has been a 12-13% drop in registered voters. Deletions are based on “ASDD”—Absent, Shifted, Dead, and Duplicate.
Impact on Migrants: High deletions were recorded in industrial areas and jute mill belts where migrant workers were temporarily away when forms were distributed.
Political Flashpoint: While the BJP frames SIR as necessary to identify “illegal Bangladeshi voters,” the highest percentage of deletions occurred in the Kolkata metropolis (36.85% in Jorasanko), not border districts.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Electoral Integrity,” “Rights of Migrant Voters,” and “Centre-State Relations.”

Detailed Analysis:

Procedural Distress: The report highlights cases like truck drivers and jute mill workers who were deleted for being “permanently shifted” while away on work.
Documentary Challenges: Many residents in the jute mill belt lack land records or property documents required to prove citizenship during hearings.
Rule Changes: Amid outrage, the ECI notified that overseas electors and those temporarily away from the state are exempt from in-person hearings.

Editorial Analysis

Jan 10, 2026

GS-2 Federalism

⚖️ Agency Raids & Electoral Integrity

Raids on I-PAC (consultancy for TMC) highlight concerns over “weaponising” the ED/CBI against opposition. Institutional risk: The erosion of a Level Playing Field ahead of 2026 Assembly polls, straining the fabric of cooperative federalism.

GS-3 Economy

💵 De-dollarisation & The Petrodollar

U.S. oil sanctions (500% Tariffs) viewed as a move to preserve dollar hegemony. Shift: India/China increasingly paying in Yuan for crude. Challenge: The emergence of a parallel BRICS financial order threatens the dollar’s global centrality.

GS-2 Social

👩‍⚕️ Character Assassination vs. Justice

The Phaltan case exposes Secondary Victimisation of women. Critique: Public shaming by institutional heads violates constitutional morality. Need: Enforcing the Nirbhaya Act (2013) bans on using a victim’s character as legal evidence.

GS-2 IR

🌍 Somaliland: Red Sea Geopolitics

Israel recognizes Somaliland (Dec 2025), challenging China’s “One China” principle and Somalia’s sovereignty. Strategic hub: Somaliland offers an alternative to the Bab el-Mandeb strait, potentially shifting the balance in the Horn of Africa.

GS-2 Governance

🗳️ SIR: The Disenfranchised Migrant

Special Intensive Revision sees 58 Lakh names deleted in West Bengal (12% drop). Problem: Deletions based on “ASDD” (Absent/Shifted) criteria hit Migrant Workers hardest. Kolkata recorded the highest drop at 36.85% in central wards.

Mapping:

Today’s mapping notes focus on Biosphere Reserves in India, Major Soil Types, and Vegetation Belts.

1. Biosphere Reserves in India

Biosphere reserves are large areas of protected land meant for the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable development. India has 18 notified biosphere reserves, some of which are part of the UNESCO World Network.

Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka): India’s first biosphere reserve, famous for the Nilgiri Tahr and Lion-tailed Macaque.
Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu): A marine biosphere reserve known for sea cows (Dugongs) and coral reefs.
Sundarbans (West Bengal): The largest mangrove forest in the world and home to the Royal Bengal Tiger.
Nanda Devi (Uttarakhand): Located in the peak of the Himalayas, known for its unique alpine flora.
Nokrek (Meghalaya): Part of the Garo Hills, it is famous for its citrus species and red pandas.
Pachmarhi (Madhya Pradesh): Known as the “Satpura ki Rani,” it features unique cave paintings and forests.

2. Major Soil Types of India

The diversity of India’s relief and climate has led to the formation of various soil types across the subcontinent.

Soil Type	Region/State	Key Characteristics
Alluvial Soil	Indo-Gangetic Plains (Punjab to Bihar)	Highly fertile; deposited by rivers; best for wheat and rice.
Black Soil	Deccan Trap (Maharashtra, Gujarat)	Also called ‘Regur’; holds moisture well; ideal for growing cotton.
Red & Yellow Soil	Peninsula (Odisha, Chhattisgarh)	Rich in iron; develops a reddish color due to diffusion of iron in crystalline rocks.
Laterite Soil	Western Ghats, TN, Kerala	Formed due to intense leaching in heavy rainfall areas; good for cashew nuts and tea.
Arid/Desert Soil	Rajasthan, North Gujarat	High salt content and low organic matter; needs heavy irrigation for farming.

3. Natural Vegetation Belts

India’s vegetation varies according to the amount of rainfall and altitude.

Tropical Evergreen Forests: Found in areas with over 200 cm of rainfall (Western Ghats, Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar). They are dense and do not shed leaves at the same time.
Tropical Deciduous Forests: The most widespread forest type in India (often called Monsoon Forests). They shed leaves for 6–8 weeks in summer.
Montane Forests: Found in high-altitude areas like the Himalayas. Vegetation changes from deciduous to coniferous as altitude increases.
Mangrove Forests: Found in coastal areas influenced by tides (Deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi, and Krishna). They have roots submerged in water.

Summary Mapping Table

Category	Key Highlight	Geographic Focus
Oldest Biosphere	Nilgiri	Junction of TN, Kerala, Karnataka
Best Cotton Soil	Black Soil	Deccan Plateau
Largest Mangrove	Sundarbans	West Bengal Delta
Highest Rainfall Vegetation	Tropical Evergreen	Western Ghats & North East

Nature & Earth

Conservation

🌿 Biosphere Reserves

India’s 18 reserves, like Nilgiri (the first) and Sundarbans (largest mangroves), are designed to balance biodiversity conservation with sustainable human use.

Mission: Find the Gulf of Mannar on the map and identify it as a marine sanctuary for the Dugong (Sea Cow).

Pedology

🪵 Soil Profiles

From the fertile Alluvial Soil of the northern plains to the moisture-retaining Black Soil of the Deccan, India’s crust is a diverse mosaic.

Soil Type	Region Focus	Key Characteristics
Alluvial	Indo-Gangetic Plains	Highly fertile; Wheat/Rice
Black (Regur)	Deccan Trap	Moisture-rich; Ideal for Cotton
Laterite	Western Ghats	Leached; Good for Cashew/Tea

Mission: Locate the arid regions of Rajasthan and identify why irrigation is critical for its high-salt soils.

Ecology

🌳 Vegetation Belts

India’s flora ranges from Evergreen Forests (200cm+ rain) to the widespread Deciduous Forests (Monsoon forests) that shed leaves in summer.

Mission: Trace the Himalayan altitude to see how vegetation changes from deciduous to coniferous Montane forests.

Quick Mapping Summary

Category	Key Highlight	Geographic Focus
Oldest Biosphere	Nilgiri	TN, Kerala, Karnataka junction
Cotton Heart	Black Soil	Deccan Plateau (MH/GJ)
Largest Mangrove	Sundarbans	West Bengal Delta
High Rain Flora	Evergreen	Western Ghats & North East

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 9 Jan 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 6 Chapter-8 (Ashoka, The Emperor who gave up War)

This chapter, “Ashoka, The Emperor Who Gave Up War,” chronicles the history of the Mauryan Empire and the transformation of its most famous ruler, Ashoka.

1. The Mauryan Empire

The Mauryan Empire was a vast territory founded more than 2,300 years ago.

Founder: Chandragupta Maurya founded the empire with the help of a wise advisor named Chanakya (or Kautilya), who recorded his ideas in the Arthashastra.
Dynasty: The Mauryas were a dynasty featuring three major rulers: Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.
Major Cities: Important centers included the Pataliputra (the capital city and center of power), Taxila (a gateway to the northwest and Central Asia), and Ujjain (a route connecting north and south India).
Empire vs. Kingdom: Empires required more resources, larger armies for protection, and a greater number of tax-collecting officials than kingdoms.

2. Administration of the Empire

Because of its massive size, different regions of the empire were managed in various ways.

Central Control: The area around Pataliputra was under the emperor’s direct supervision. Officials collected taxes, messengers delivered news, and spies monitored officials.
Provincial Rule: Other provinces were governed from capitals like Taxila or Ujjain, often by royal princes serving as governors.
Taxes and Tribute: While taxes were collected regularly, tribute was collected when possible from people who gave items like gold, blankets, or forest produce (elephants, timber, honey) more or less willingly.

3. Ashoka and the Kalinga War

Ashoka was a unique ruler who attempted to reach his people through inscriptions in Prakrit and the Brahmi script.

The Turning Point: Eight years after becoming king, Ashoka conquered Kalinga (ancient coastal Orissa).
Change of Heart: Horrified by the violence—over a lakh people were killed and many others captured—Ashoka decided to give up war. He is the only king in history to abandon conquest after winning a war.

4. Ashoka’s Dhamma

After the Kalinga war, Ashoka focused on Dhamma (the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit ‘Dharma’).

Core Principles: His Dhamma did not involve worshipping a god or sacrifice. Instead, it focused on:
- Being gentle with slaves and servants.
- Respecting elders and treating all creatures with compassion.
- Respecting all religions; he believed praising one’s own while criticizing another’s harmed one’s own faith.
Spreading the Message: Ashoka appointed officials called dhamma mahamatta to teach these ideas. He sent messengers to other lands like Syria, Egypt, Greece, and Sri Lanka.
Public Welfare: He built roads, dug wells, established rest houses, and arranged medical care for both humans and animals.

5. Art and Architecture

Mauryan rulers were known for their highly skilled sculptors.

Lion Capital: Originally placed on a stone pillar at Sarnath, the lions now appear on Indian notes and coins.
Rampurwa Bull: A finely polished stone sculpture found in Bihar, now kept at Rashtrapati Bhavan.

6. What Followed the Mauryas

The empire collapsed about 2,200 years ago, leading to the rise of new powers:

North & West: Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas, and eventually the Guptas.
Central & South: The Shungas, Satavahanas, Vakatakas, and the southern kingdoms of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas.

🦁 Ashoka: The Great Emperor

🛡️ The Mauryan Dynasty

Founded 2,300 years ago by Chandragupta Maurya with advisor Chanakya (Arthashastra). Key hubs: Pataliputra (capital), Taxila (NW gateway), and Ujjain.

🏛️ Administration

Emperors directly ruled the capital while princes governed provinces. Officials collected regular Taxes, while forest tribes provided Tribute like elephants and timber.

⚔️ The Kalinga Turning Point

After a bloody victory in Kalinga, Ashoka was filled with remorse. He became the only king in history to abandon conquest after winning a war, turning instead to peace.

☸️ Ashoka’s Dhamma

Ashoka spread Dhamma (compassion and religious tolerance) via Dhamma Mahamattas. He built roads, dug wells, and sent messengers to Greece, Egypt, and Sri Lanka.

Legacy The Sarnath Lion Capital is now India’s national emblem. After the Mauryas, powers like the Kushanas and Guptas emerged.

📂

Class-6 History Chapter-8 PDF

Complete Study Notes: Ashoka, The Emperor Who Gave Up War

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⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 15, and 16

In a diverse society like India, historical inequalities required more than just “equal treatment”; they required active protection against discrimination. Articles 15 and 16 provide this shield, ensuring that a person’s identity does not become a barrier to their progress.

1. Article 15: Prohibition of Discrimination

Article 15 ensures that the “State” does not discriminate against citizens in social and public life. It is more specific than Article 14 because it lists five prohibited grounds of discrimination.

The Five Grounds

The State cannot discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of:

Religion
Race
Caste
Sex
Place of Birth

Crucial Word: “Only”

If discrimination is based on one of these grounds plus some other factor (like educational qualification or physical fitness), it may not be considered a violation of Article 15.

Clauses of Article 15

15(1): General prohibition against the State from discriminating.
15(2): Horizontal Rights. No citizen can be denied access to shops, public restaurants, hotels, or the use of wells, tanks, and roads maintained by State funds. This is one of the few rights enforceable against private individuals as well.
15(3) [Exception]: The State can make special provisions for women and children (e.g., reservation of seats for women in local bodies or free education for children).
15(4) [Exception]: Added by the 1st Amendment (1951), it allows special provisions for the advancement of Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs), SCs, and STs.
15(5): Allows reservations in educational institutions, including private ones (added by the 93rd Amendment, 2005).
15(6): Allows up to 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) in educational admissions (added by the 103rd Amendment, 2019).

2. Article 16: Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment

While Article 15 covers social access, Article 16 is confined specifically to employment or appointment under the State.

The Seven Grounds

Article 16(2) expands the list of prohibited grounds to seven. No citizen can be discriminated against for government jobs based on:

Religion | 2. Race | 3. Caste | 4. Sex | 5. Place of Birth | 6. Descent | 7. Residence

The Framework of Exceptions (Reservation Policy)

Article 16 is not just about “no discrimination”; it is about “Substantive Equality.”

16(3): Parliament can prescribe residence as a condition for certain jobs in a particular State/UT (e.g., for certain posts in Andhra Pradesh or Telangana).
16(4): The State can provide for reservation of appointments in favor of any “backward class” which is not adequately represented in the services of the State.
16(4A): Provides for reservation in matters of promotion for SCs and STs (added after the Indra Sawhney case).
16(4B): The “Carry Forward Rule.” If reserved seats are not filled in a year, they can be filled in the next year without being counted against the 50% limit for that specific year.
16(5): Allows laws to require that an official of a religious institution (like a Waqf Board or Temple Trust) must belong to that specific religion.
16(6): Provides up to 10% reservation for EWS in public appointments.

Key Differences: Article 15 vs. Article 16

Feature	Article 15	Article 16
Scope	Broad (Social, educational, public places).	Narrow (Only Public Employment/Offices).
Grounds	5 grounds (Religion, Race, Caste, Sex, Place of birth).	7 grounds (Adds Descent and Residence).
Beneficiaries	Includes non-citizens in some aspects of 15(2).	Only available to Citizens.

Landmark Cases

State of Madras v. Champakam Dorairajan (1951): Led to the 1st Amendment and the birth of Article 15(4).
Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992): The “Mandal Commission Case.” It upheld 27% OBC reservation but capped total reservations at 50% and introduced the “Creamy Layer” concept.
Janhit Abhiyan v. Union of India (2022): The Supreme Court upheld the 103rd Amendment (10% EWS reservation), ruling that it does not violate the basic structure of the Constitution.

🛡️ Articles 15 & 16: Social Equity

🚫 Art 15: Non-Discrimination

Prohibits the State from discriminating on 5 grounds only: Religion, Race, Caste, Sex, Place of Birth. 15(2) ensures access to shops/wells/roads for all.

💼 Art 16: Public Employment

Guarantees equal opportunity in State jobs. Expands grounds to 7 by adding Descent and Residence. Available strictly to Citizens only.

👩‍👧 Special Provisions

15(3) allows special favor for women and children. 15(4) & 15(5) permit reservations in educational institutions for SC/ST and SEBCs.

📊 Reservation Policy

16(4) allows reservation for backward classes. 16(4A) covers promotions for SC/ST, and 16(4B) enables the “Carry Forward” rule.

💰 EWS Reservation

The 103rd Amendment (2019) added Articles 15(6) and 16(6), providing up to 10% quota for Economically Weaker Sections in education and jobs.

⚖️ Landmark Judgments

Indra Sawhney: Capped total reservation at 50% & introduced Creamy Layer. Janhit Abhiyan: Upheld EWS as not violating basic structure.

Comparison Art 15 is social/educational in scope with 5 grounds, while Art 16 is professional (State jobs) in scope with 7 grounds.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (09-January-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 9, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Slapping Tariffs: U.S. Pressure on Russian Oil Imports

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests).

Context: U.S. President Donald Trump has greenlit the Russia Sanctions Bill, which empowers him to levy up to 500% in tariffs on countries buying oil or uranium from Russia.

Key Points:

Leverage Strategy: The Bill aims to provide the U.S. with “tremendous leverage” to incentivize countries like India, China, and Brazil to stop financing Russia’s actions in Ukraine through oil purchases.
Bipartisan Support: The Bill has significant backing in both the Senate (84 co-sponsors) and the House (151 co-sponsors), suggesting a smooth passage.
India’s Response: Reliance Industries has already stopped receiving Russian oil at its Jamnagar refinery as of December 2025, and Indian Ambassador Vinay Kwatra has sought relief from current 25% penalty tariffs.

UPSC Relevance: Critical for topics like “Energy Security,” “Strategic Autonomy,” and “Indo-U.S. Bilateral Ties.”

Detailed Analysis:

Economic Impact: For India, which has seen Russian oil account for up to 35% of its imports, a 500% tariff would effectively end the economic viability of these purchases.
Diplomatic Balancing: The move follows a pattern from 2018 when India “zeroed out” oil imports from Iran and Venezuela under similar U.S. pressure.
Shift in Supplies: While Indian PSUs had increased intake recently, private players like Reliance and Nayara Energy (under Western sanctions) are halting imports, making a full recovery of previous Russian oil levels unlikely.

2. GSDP: A Fairer Metric for Tax Devolution?

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Issues relating to mobilization of resources; Federal Structure).

Context: An editorial proposing that Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) share be used as a primary criterion for Central-State tax transfers to better balance efficiency and equity.

Key Points:

Collection vs. Accrual: High-performing states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu argue they contribute disproportionately to Central taxes but receive smaller devolution shares.
GSDP as Proxy: Unlike direct tax figures that reflect registered office locations (e.g., PAN data), GSDP reflects the underlying tax base where economic activity actually occurs.
Devolution Outcomes: Under the 15th Finance Commission, Uttar Pradesh received 15.81% of transfers while contributing only 4.6% to collections; conversely, Maharashtra contributed 40.3% but received 6.64%.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Fiscal Federalism,” “Finance Commission Mandates,” and “GST Challenges.”

Detailed Analysis:

Efficiency vs. Equity: Current formulas prioritize “income distance” and “population,” which critics argue penalize performance. A GSDP-based formula would better acknowledge state contributions to national income.
Simulated Gains: If GSDP were the sole metric, 9 out of 20 major states would gain. Maharashtra and Karnataka would benefit most, while states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh would see moderate reductions.
Strong Correlation: Statistical data shows a high correlation (0.91) between GSDP and GST collections, making it a reliable indicator of tax accrual at the state level.

3. NATGRID: Security vs. Digital Authoritarianism

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Internal Security; Challenges to internal security through communication networks; Cyber Security).

Context: An analysis of the National Intelligence Grid (NATGRID) and concerns over its expansion without a statutory framework.

Key Points:

Expanded Access: NATGRID has scaled its operations to roughly 45,000 requests monthly, with access granted to police units down to the rank of Superintendent.
Data Integration: The grid is reportedly being integrated with the National Population Register (NPR), which contains data for 119 crore residents.
Technological Capability: The system uses the “Gandiva” analytical engine for “entity resolution,” triangulating fragmented records to identify and track individuals.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Surveillance Laws,” “Right to Privacy (Justice K.S. Puttaswamy case),” and “Governance vs. Security.”

Detailed Analysis:

Lack of Statutory Oversight: NATGRID operates via executive order rather than an Act of Parliament, leading to calls for independent oversight to prevent misuse.
Reproducing Biases: The editorial warns that algorithms ingested by NATGRID may reproduce societal biases related to caste, religion, or geography, potentially leading to discriminatory outcomes.

4. Spina Bifida: The Ignored Birth Defect

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Health; Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector).

Context: A report highlighting that India has one of the highest prevalence rates of Spina Bifida globally (4 per 1,000 births) despite it being largely preventable.

Key Points:

Prevention: Intake of folic acid before conception can prevent over 70% of Spina Bifida cases.
Lack of Policy: Unlike 68 other countries, India has no mandatory food fortification laws for folic acid, nor widespread national awareness campaigns.
Economic Burden: Every rupee spent on prevention could save more than 100 rupees required for the long-term treatment and rehabilitation of affected children.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Public Health Policy,” “Social Justice for Disabled,” and “Nutrition Security.”

Detailed Analysis:

Health Negligence: The failure to educate the public about periconceptional folic acid is termed “gross public health negligence” given the severity of the condition, which causes childhood paralysis.
Innovative Solutions: Research suggests using widely consumed “vehicles” like salt or tea for fortification with folate and Vitamin B12 to eliminate neurological complications.

5. India’s Growth Forecasts: UN DESA vs. Govt

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Growth and Development).

Context: A comparison between the Union government’s First Advance Estimates (7.4%) and UN DESA’s growth projection (7.2%) for FY26.

Key Points:

Growth Drivers: Resilient domestic consumption and strong public investment in digital and physical infrastructure are expected to largely offset the impact of U.S. tariffs.
Tariff Headwinds: Tariffs remain a risk as 18% of Indian exports are U.S.-bound; however, demand from Europe and West Asia may limit this impact.
Supply Side: Manufacturing and services expansion remain the primary supply-side drivers of growth.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Macroeconomic Planning,” “Global Economic Trends,” and “Budgetary Assumptions.”

Detailed Analysis:

Contrasting Trends: While India sees growth in gross fixed capital formation, China has seen a contraction in fixed asset investment due to its weakening property sector.
Fiscal Support: Tax reforms and monetary easing are identified as necessary near-term supports to sustain the 7%+ growth trajectory.

Editorial Analysis

Jan 09, 2026

GS-2 IR

🛢️ Oil Diplomacy & 500% Tariffs

U.S. Russia Sanctions Bill threatens 500% Tariffs on oil buyers. Impact: Reliance Jamnagar has already halted Russian crude. Challenge: Balancing Strategic Autonomy with U.S. pressure as Russia supplies 35% of India’s imports.

GS-3 Economy

📊 GSDP: The Devolution Debate

Proposed shift in tax transfers: Using GSDP share over registered office data. Paradox: Maharashtra contributes 40.3% but receives 6.64%; UP contributes 4.6% but receives 15.81%. Goal: Better reward for economic efficiency.

GS-3 Security

👁️ NATGRID & “Gandiva” Analytics

Grid expansion to 45,000 monthly requests. High-tech “entity resolution” integrated with NPR (119 Cr residents). Risk: Operating via executive order without a statutory framework may lead to algorithmic bias and privacy breaches.

GS-2 Health

🏥 Spina Bifida: A Policy Blindspot

India has a high prevalence of 4 per 1,000 births. Fact: 70% cases are preventable with Folic Acid. Gap: India lacks mandatory food fortification laws. Saving: ₹1 spent on prevention saves ₹100 in long-term treatment.

GS-3 Economy

📈 Growth Forecast: India vs. UN DESA

UN projects 7.2% growth vs Govt’s 7.4%. Key driver: Public infrastructure and domestic consumption. Risk: 18% of exports are U.S.-bound, making Tariff Headwinds the primary risk to FY26 assumptions.

Mapping:

For today’s mapping session, we will focus on India’s Coastal Geography, Major Ports, and Island Territories.

1. India’s Coastal Geography

India has a coastline of 7,516.6 km, including the mainland and island territories. It is divided into the Western Coast and the Eastern Coast.

The Western Coast: Narrower than the eastern coast. It consists of:
- Konkan Coast: Maharashtra and Goa.
- Kanara Coast: Karnataka.
- Malabar Coast: Kerala (famous for backwaters or kayals).
The Eastern Coast: Broader and characterized by large deltas formed by rivers like the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri.
- Northern Circars: Northern part (Odisha/Andhra Pradesh).
- Coromandel Coast: Southern part (Tamil Nadu).

2. Major Sea Ports of India

India has 13 major ports that handle the bulk of its international trade.

Coast	Major Port	Key Feature
Western	Kandla (Gujarat)	A tidal port; handles petroleum and fertilizer imports.
Western	Mumbai (Maharashtra)	The largest and busiest port in India.
Western	Mormugao (Goa)	Leading iron ore exporting port.
Western	Kochi (Kerala)	Situated at the entrance of a lagoon (Vembanad Lake).
Eastern	Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu)	Handles a variety of cargo to neighboring countries like Sri Lanka.
Eastern	Visakhapatnam (A.P.)	Deepest landlocked and protected port.
Eastern	Paradip (Odisha)	Specializes in the export of iron ore to Japan.
Eastern	Haldia/Kolkata (W.B.)	A riverine port situated on the Hooghly River.

3. Island Territories & Strategic Channels

India has two major island groups which are strategically vital for maritime security.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Bay of Bengal):
- They are an elevated portion of submarine mountains.
- 10 Degree Channel: Separates the Andaman group from the Nicobar group.
- Barren Island: Home to India’s only active volcano.
Lakshadweep Islands (Arabian Sea):
- These are coral islands (atolls).
- 9 Degree Channel: Separates the island of Minicoy from the rest of Lakshadweep.
- 8 Degree Channel: Separates the entire Lakshadweep group from the Maldives.

Summary Mapping Table

Feature	Details	Geographic Location
Longest Coastline	Gujarat	West Coast
Deepest Port	Visakhapatnam	East Coast
Coral Islands	Lakshadweep	Arabian Sea
Active Volcano	Barren Island	Andaman Sea

Maritime Frontiers

Littoral Zones

🌊 The 7,516 km Coastline

Divided into the narrow Western Coast (Konkan, Kanara, Malabar) and the broad, deltaic Eastern Coast (Northern Circars, Coromandel).

Mission: Identify which coast is famous for ‘Kayals’ (backwaters) and locate the Coromandel coast in the south-east.

Maritime Trade

🚢 Major Sea Ports

India manages international trade through 13 major ports, from the tidal gates of Kandla to the riverine docks of Kolkata-Haldia.

Port	Coast	Distinguishing Feature
Mumbai	Western	Largest and busiest port in India
Visakhapatnam	Eastern	Deepest landlocked protected port
Mormugao	Western	Leading iron ore exporter (Goa)

Mission: Find Paradip on the Odisha coast and trace the iron ore export route to Japan.

Archipelagos

🏝️ Strategic Islands

From the coral atolls of Lakshadweep to the volcanic peaks of Andaman & Nicobar. These territories are separated by vital maritime channels: 8°, 9°, and 10° North.

Mission: Locate Barren Island in the Andaman Sea—home to India’s only active volcano.

Summary Reference

Feature	Details	Location
Longest Coast	Gujarat	West Coast
Coral Atolls	Lakshadweep	Arabian Sea
Strategic Channel	10 Degree Channel	Andaman & Nicobar

सीसैट परीक्षा में पूछे गए वास्तविक प्रश्नों का नियमित अभ्यास करें।