IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 11 Feb 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 9 Chapter-2 (Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution)

This chapter, “Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution”, explores the rise of socialist ideas in Europe and the dramatic transformation of Russia from an autocracy into the world’s first socialist state.

1. The Age of Social Change

The French Revolution opened the possibility of dramatic change in society, leading to three distinct political perspectives in Europe:

Liberals:
- Sought a nation that tolerated all religions.
- Opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers and argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government.
- Stressed the importance of a judiciary independent of rulers and officials.
- They were not “democrats” because they did not believe in universal adult franchise; they felt only men of property should vote and did not want the vote for women.
Radicals:
- Wanted a government based on the majority of a country’s population.
- Supported women’s suffragette movements.
- Opposed the privileges of great landowners and wealthy factory owners.
- While not against the existence of private property, they disliked the concentration of property in the hands of a few.
Conservatives:
- Generally opposed the idea of change in the eighteenth century.
- By the nineteenth century, they accepted that some change was inevitable but believed the past had to be respected and change should be brought about through a slow process.

2. The Coming of Socialism to Europe

Socialists were well-known for their radical ideas by the mid-nineteenth century, primarily characterized by their opposition to private property.

Opposition to Private Property: Socialists viewed private property as the root of all social ills because property owners were concerned only with personal gain rather than the welfare of those who made the property productive.
Visions of the Future:
- Robert Owen: A leading English manufacturer who sought to build a cooperative community called “New Harmony” in Indiana (USA).
- Louis Blanc: In France, he wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises.
- Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Marx argued that industrial society was “capitalist” and that the profit of capitalists was produced by workers. He believed workers had to overthrow capitalism and private property to construct a radically socialist society where all property was socially controlled (Communism).

3. The Russian Empire in 1914

In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its vast empire, which included modern-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus.

Economic Conditions:
- Russia was an agrarian economy; about 85% of the population earned their living from agriculture, a much higher proportion than in France or Germany.
- Cultivators produced for the market as well as for their own needs, and Russia was a major exporter of grain.
Industrial Conditions:
- Industry was found in small pockets, primarily in St. Petersburg and Moscow.
- Much of the production was done in craft workshops, but large factories existed alongside them, many of which were set up in the 1890s when Russia’s railway network expanded and foreign investment increased.
Social Divisions:
- Workers were a divided social group, often maintaining strong links with the villages they came from.
- They were divided by skill; metalworkers, for example, considered themselves “aristocrats” among workers.
- Despite divisions, workers united to strike (stop work) when they disagreed with employers about dismissals or work conditions.

4. Socialism in Russia

All political parties were illegal in Russia before 1914.

Social Democratic Workers Party: Founded in 1898 by socialists who respected Marx’s ideas. It was later divided into two groups:
- Bolsheviks: Led by Vladimir Lenin, they thought that in a repressive society like Tsarist Russia, the party should be disciplined and control the number and quality of its members.
- Mensheviks: Thought that the party should be open to all, as in Germany.
Socialist Revolutionary Party: Formed in 1900, they struggled for peasants’ rights and demanded that land belonging to nobles be transferred to peasants.

5. The 1905 Revolution

Russia was an autocracy where the Tsar was not subject to parliament.

Bloody Sunday: In 1905, a procession of workers led by Father Gapon reached the Winter Palace to present a petition. They were attacked by police; over 100 workers were killed and 300 wounded.
Consequences: The events triggered strikes across the country, lead to the creation of the first Duma (an elected consultative parliament), and marked the start of widespread revolutionary activity.

6. The First World War and the Russian Empire

In 1914, war broke out between two European alliances: the Central Powers (Germany, Austria, Turkey) and the Allied Powers (France, Britain, Russia).

Impact on Russia:
- Russian armies suffered heavy defeats in Germany and Austria between 1914 and 1916.
- The war led to 7 million casualties by 1917 and created 3 million refugees in Russia.
- The war caused severe labor shortages and food crises; by the winter of 1916, riots at bread shops were common.

7. The Revolutions of 1917

The February Revolution: In February 1917, food shortages led to a lockout at a factory in Petrograd, followed by a series of strikes. The Tsar abdicated on March 2, and a Provisional Government was formed by Soviet and Duma leaders.
The October Revolution: As the Provisional Government’s power declined and Bolshevik influence grew, Lenin organized an uprising. On October 24, the uprising began; by nightfall, the city was under Bolshevik control and the ministers had surrendered.

8. Changes after October and the Civil War

Bolshevik Reforms: Most industry and banks were nationalized in November 1917. Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
The Civil War: The Bolshevik uprising was opposed by “Whites” (pro-Tsarists) and “Greens” (Socialist Revolutionaries), supported by French, British, and American troops. The Bolsheviks eventually won by 1920, aided by non-Russian nationalities and Muslim jadidists.
Stalin’s Collectivisation: To solve grain shortages, Stalin forced peasants into collective farms (kolkhoz) starting in 1929. Those who resisted were severely punished, deported, or exiled.

NCERT History • Class-9

Chapter – 2

Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution

From Tsarism to Revolution

1905 Revolution: Triggered by Bloody Sunday; led to the creation of the Duma, the first elected consultative parliament in Russia.

February 1917: Food shortages and strikes in Petrograd forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate, ending centuries of Romanov rule.

October 1917: The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power from the Provisional Government, nationalizing banks and industry.

Civil War: Conflict erupted between the “Reds” (Bolsheviks) and the “Whites” (pro-Tsarists) until Bolshevik victory in 1920.

Stalin’s Era: Introduced Collectivisation (Kolkhoz) in 1929 to solve grain crises, forcibly moving peasants into state-run farms.

Bolsheviks

Lenin’s disciplined majority faction that advocated for a centralized revolutionary party.

Bloody Sunday

1905 massacre of peaceful workers at the Winter Palace, sparking nationwide strikes.

Kolkhoz

Collective farms where peasants were forced to pool land and labor under Stalin’s rule.

Global Impact

The Russian Revolution transformed socialist theory into a global reality. It challenged the capitalist order and inspired anti-colonial movements worldwide, fundamentally altering the political landscape of the 20th century.

⚖️Indian Polity: Subordinate Courts (Articles 233–237)

The Subordinate Courts are called so because they are placed under the administrative and judicial superintendence of the High Court of the respective state.

Article 233: Appointment of District Judges

Mandate: The appointment, posting, and promotion of district judges in any State are made by the Governor of the State in consultation with the High Court exercising jurisdiction in relation to such State.
Eligibility: A person not already in the service of the Union or the State shall only be eligible to be appointed as a district judge if he has been for not less than seven years an advocate or a pleader and is recommended by the High Court for appointment.

Article 233A: Validation of Certain Appointments

Context: This was added by the 20th Amendment Act (1966).
Mandate: It validates the appointments of, and judgments delivered by, certain district judges which were otherwise considered occupied or delivered irregularly due to procedural technicalities. It acts as a “saving clause” for past judicial actions.

Article 234: Recruitment of Persons (Other than District Judges)

Mandate: This article covers the “Judicial Service” below the rank of District Judge (Civil Judges, Magistrates).
Process: Appointments are made by the Governor of the State in accordance with rules made by him after consultation with the State Public Service Commission and the High Court.

Article 235: Control over Subordinate Courts

Mandate: This is the most powerful article for the High Court. It vests the “Control” over district courts and courts subordinate thereto in the High Court.
Scope of Control: This includes the posting, promotion, and grant of leave to persons belonging to the judicial service of a State and holding any post inferior to the post of district judge.
Protection: However, this article ensures that a person’s right of appeal against disciplinary actions remains intact according to the conditions of their service.

Article 236: Interpretation (Definitions)

This article provides the legal definitions for terms used in this chapter:

“District Judge”: Includes judges of a city civil court, additional district judge, joint district judge, assistant district judge, chief judge of a small cause court, chief presidency magistrate, and others.
“Judicial Service”: Means a service consisting exclusively of persons intended to fill the post of district judge and other civil judicial posts inferior to the post of district judge.

Article 237: Application to Certain Class of Magistrates

Mandate: The Governor may, by public notification, direct that the provisions of this chapter (Articles 233–236) shall apply to any class of magistrates in the State.
Purpose: This allows the State to bring executive magistrates or other special judicial officers under the same protective and administrative umbrella as the regular judicial service.

📊 Summary Table for Quick Revision

Article	Key Subject	Authority Involved
233	Appointment of District Judges	Governor + High Court
234	Recruitment of Lower Judiciary	Governor + SPSC + High Court
235	Control over Subordinate Courts	Vested in the High Court
236	Definitions	Defines “District Judge” & “Service”
237	Application to Magistrates	Governor’s Notification

State Judiciary • Part VI • Art. 233-237

Lower Judiciary System

Subordinate Courts

Lower Judicial Service (Art. 234)

Recruitment for posts below District Judge is handled by the Governor after consultation with the State Public Service Commission and the High Court.

Definitions (Art. 236)

District Judge: Includes judges of city civil courts, additional district judges, joint district judges, and chief presidency magistrates.

Judicial Service: A service exclusively for filling the posts of district judge and inferior civil judicial posts.

Validation (233A)

Acts as a “saving clause” to validate past appointments and judgments otherwise hampered by technicalities.

Magistrates (237)

Governor may direct that provisions of this chapter apply to any class of Magistrates in the State.

HC Supervision

The High Court maintains both judicial and administrative superintendence to ensure judicial independence.

Protective
Shield

Subordinate courts are the foundation of the Indian judiciary. By vesting administrative control in the High Court (Art 235) rather than the executive, the Constitution ensures that the lower judiciary remains independent and shielded from political interference in daily operations like postings and promotions.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (11-February-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for February 11, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Approaching the AI Surge: Global Consequences

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Science & Technology; IT & Computers; Economy) and GS Paper 2 (Governance).

Context: An analysis of the impending “AI surge” and whether human institutions, ethics, and legal frameworks can keep pace with the exponential growth of artificial intelligence.

Key Points:

The Hardware Frontier: The surge is driven by massive investments in compute power, with projections of AI data centers requiring energy equivalent to small nations.
Economic Displacement: While AI promises productivity gains, the editorial warns of a “hollowing out” of mid-level cognitive jobs, particularly in coding, legal research, and content creation.
The Trust Deficit: The proliferation of sophisticated deepfakes and AI-generated misinformation is threatening the integrity of democratic processes and personal security.
Strategic Sovereignty: Global power is increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few “AI superpowers” (nations and corporations), creating a new digital divide for the Global South.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Industrial Revolution 4.0,” “Digital Ethics,” and “Technology Governance.”

Detailed Analysis:

Energy and Sustainability: The editorial highlights the “hidden environmental cost” of AI, noting that training a single large language model can consume as much water as 3,000 people use in a year.
Regulatory Lag: Current legislative efforts (like the EU AI Act or India’s proposed Digital India Act) are often reactive; the piece advocates for “anticipatory governance” that builds safety into the design phase.
Human-Centric AI: The goal should not be the replacement of human agency but “augmented intelligence,” where AI tools are used to solve complex problems in climate change, healthcare, and resource management.

2. Bias Charge: The Motion to Remove the Speaker

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Parliament and State Legislatures—Structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers & privileges).

Context: In a rare parliamentary move, a united Opposition has submitted a notice for the removal of Lok Sabha Speaker Om Birla, alleging partisan conduct.

Key Points:

Constitutional Basis: Under Article 94(c), the Speaker can be removed by a resolution passed by a majority of all the then members of the Lok Sabha, provided 14 days’ notice is given.
Allegations of Bias: The Opposition cites the frequent muting of microphones, the “selective” expunging of remarks by the Leader of the Opposition, and the passing of the Motion of Thanks without a PM reply.
The Speaker’s Defense: The Treasury benches argue the Speaker has acted within his rules-based discretion to maintain order amidst “unprecedented disruptions.”
Procedural Impasse: The motion adds to the ongoing friction in the House, which has seen several days of total washout during the current session.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Parliamentary Procedures,” “Role and Neutrality of the Speaker,” and “Legislative Accountability.”

Detailed Analysis:

Institutional Integrity: The Speaker is the “linchpin” of parliamentary democracy; the editorial argues that when the Speaker’s neutrality is questioned, the legitimacy of the entire legislative process is at stake.
Precedents: Such motions are extremely rare in Indian history (e.g., against G.V. Mavalankar in 1954); they typically serve as a “political signal” even if they lack the numbers to pass.
Role of Convention: The piece suggests that the current crisis stems from a breakdown of informal conventions and consultation between the Speaker and the Opposition.

3. Textile Trade: The U.S.-Bangladesh Deal and Indian Exporters

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Mobilization of resources; Growth and development) and GS Paper 2 (Bilateral relations).

Context: A new preferential trade arrangement between the U.S. and Bangladesh for garment exports has raised concerns among Indian textile manufacturers.

Key Points:

Competitiveness Gap: The deal provides Bangladesh’s apparel exports with lower duties in the U.S. market, potentially undercutting Indian products which face 18% tariffs under the new U.S.-India trade deal.
Input-Output Linkages: Bangladesh remains a major market for Indian cotton and yarn; however, if the U.S. deal mandates “local sourcing” of raw materials, Indian upstream exports could suffer.
Sectoral Stress: The Indian textile industry, already struggling with high power costs and rigid labor laws, fears a loss of market share in its largest export destination.
Regional Rebalancing: The U.S. move is seen as a way to support the interim government in Dhaka and provide an alternative to Chinese supply chains.

UPSC Relevance: Critical for “International Trade,” “Textile Sector Challenges,” and “South Asian Economic Integration.”

Detailed Analysis:

Level Playing Field: Indian exporters are demanding “reciprocal parity,” arguing that India’s higher environmental and labor standards should be recognized as a value-addition.
Diversification Necessity: The editorial suggests that India must move up the value chain into technical textiles and man-made fibers to reduce reliance on basic apparel segments.
Strategic Trade Policy: The situation highlights the need for India to fast-track its own FTA negotiations with the UK and EU to provide alternative “duty-free” outlets for its exporters.

4. Conflict in Manipur: The Ukhrul Standoff

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Internal Security; Role of external state and non-state actors) and GS Paper 2 (Governance).

Context: Fresh violence in Manipur’s Ukhrul district has led to the suspension of internet services and the imposition of a curfew, reflecting the fragile security situation.

Key Points:

Territorial Friction: The latest clash involves disputes over land and local jurisdiction between the Tangkhul Naga and Kuki-Zo communities.
Digital Blackout: The internet ban is intended to prevent the spread of inflammatory content and rumors that could trigger retaliatory violence in other districts.
State Capacity: Despite the return of a popular government, the state machinery appears overstretched in managing multiple ethnic fault lines (Meitei-Kuki and Naga-Kuki).
Naga Peace Process: Tensions in Naga-dominated areas like Ukhrul complicate the broader “Framework Agreement” talks between the Centre and Naga groups.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Internal Security in the Northeast,” “Ethnic Conflicts,” and “Crisis Management.”

Detailed Analysis:

The Shadow of Buffer Zones: Security analysts suggest that the creation of “buffer zones” has inadvertently led to “fortification” by different communities, making inter-community movement a trigger for violence.
Role of Civil Society: The failure of community elders and civil society organizations to broker peace indicates a “radicalization of the middle ground” in the state.
Governance Vacuum: The editorial notes that while security forces can “contain” violence, only a sustained political dialogue can “resolve” the underlying grievances.

5. Dry vs. Wet: The Science of Rocket Rehearsals

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Science & Technology; Space Technology).

Context: An educational feature explaining the difference between “Dry Dress Rehearsals” and “Wet Dress Rehearsals” (WDR) in modern space missions like NASA’s SLS and ISRO’s Gaganyaan.

Key Points:

Dry Dress Rehearsal: A full-scale simulation of the launch countdown without loading any fuel; it tests communication, logic flows, and decision-making handoffs.
Wet Dress Rehearsal (WDR): The final, most critical test where the rocket is fueled with actual cryogenic propellants (liquid oxygen/hydrogen) to check for leaks under extreme cold.
Cryogenic Challenges: Only a WDR can reveal “cryo-leaks” in seals or valves that only appear when components shrink due to the -183°C to -253°C temperatures.
Risk Mitigation: These rehearsals allow teams to “fail safely” on the ground, ensuring that logical errors or hardware glitches are caught before the point of no return.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Space Mission Procedures,” “Cryogenic Engine Technology,” and “Scientific Safety Protocols.”

Detailed Analysis:

Statistical Significance: Modern rockets are so complex that nearly 40% of all launch scrubs occur due to issues identified during or just after a WDR.
Cost of Failure: With missions costing billions, the “insurance” provided by a successful WDR is indispensable for space agencies and private players like SpaceX or Blue Origin.
ISRO’s Precision: As India prepares for manned missions (Gaganyaan), the mastery of “integrated rehearsals” is the final frontier in ensuring human safety in space.

Editorial Analysis

FEBRUARY 11, 2026

GS-3 SCIENCE & TECH The Impending AI Surge

Data centers now rival small nations in power needs. Focus on Anticipatory Governance to manage cognitive job displacement.

GS-3 ECONOMY Textile Trade Wars

U.S.-Bangladesh apparel deal undercuts Indian exports. Sector faces stress as 18% Tariffs weigh on Indian cotton and yarn markets.

GS-3 SPACE TECH Rocket Rehearsals: Wet vs Dry

WDR identifies Cryo-leaks at -253°C. Critical “fail safe” protocol where 40% of launch scrubs are preempted.

GOVERNANCE: AI training for one large model consumes water equivalent to 3,000 people’s annual usage.

PARLIAMENT: The Speaker is the “linchpin” of democracy; neutral conduct is vital to legislative legitimacy.

ECONOMY: India must move to technical textiles to reduce reliance on apparel segments facing regional rebalancing.

SECURITY: Creation of “buffer zones” has inadvertently led to communal fortification, stalling political dialogue.

GS-4
Institutional Neutrality

Arbitration vs. Partisanship: The Speaker’s role requires being the impartial arbiter of the House. When the “linchpin” of the legislature is seen as partisan, the legitimacy of parliamentary democracy itself is compromised, necessitating a return to informal consultative conventions.

Mapping:

Today’s mapping notes focus on the global circulatory systems of our planet—rivers and lakes. These are critical for your UPSC & PCS Exams notes, as they form the basis for international borders, climate regulation, and civilizations.

1. Major Rivers of the World

Rivers are often categorized by length, discharge volume, or strategic transboundary importance.

Continental Leaders (Longest Rivers)

Continent	River	Length (Approx)	Significance
Africa	Nile	6,650 km	Longest in the world; flows North into the Mediterranean.
South America	Amazon	6,400 km	Largest by discharge volume; crosses the largest rainforest.
Asia	Yangtze	6,300 km	Longest in Asia; flows entirely within China.
North America	Mississippi	6,275 km	Forms a “Bird-foot” delta in the Gulf of Mexico.
Europe	Volga	3,530 km	Longest in Europe; drains into the landlocked Caspian Sea.
Australia	Murray-Darling	3,672 km	Primary river system of the Australian continent.

Strategic Mapping Points

The Equator Crosser: The Congo River (Africa) is the only major river to cross the Equator twice. It is also the world’s deepest river (over 220m).
The “Sorrow” Rivers: The Yellow River (Huang He) in China is known for its devastating floods and massive silt load.
Transboundary Conflicts: Focus on the Mekong (SE Asia), Brahmaputra (China-India-Bangladesh), and Nile (Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam issues) for International Relations (IR) mapping.

2. Major Lakes of the World

Lakes are the “thermometers” of the Earth’s health. For 2026, focus on the distinction between area, volume, and salinity.

The Global “Top 5” by Area

Caspian Sea (Saltwater): The largest landlocked body of water. Borders 5 countries: Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Azerbaijan.
Lake Superior (Freshwater): Largest freshwater lake by surface area (USA/Canada).
Lake Victoria (Freshwater): Largest tropical lake; source of the White Nile (Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania).
Lake Huron: Part of the North American Great Lakes system.
Lake Michigan: The largest lake located entirely within one country (USA).

Special Categories for Mapping

Deepest & Oldest: Lake Baikal (Russia). It holds 20% of the world’s unfrozen surface freshwater.
Longest Freshwater Lake: Lake Tanganyika (Africa). It stretches across four countries: Tanzania, DR Congo, Burundi, and Zambia.
Highest Navigable Lake: Lake Titicaca (Andes; Peru/Bolivia border).
Lowest Point on Earth: The Dead Sea (Israel/Jordan). It is nearly 10 times saltier than the ocean.

Summary Mapping Checklist

Record	Name	Location
Longest River	Nile	Africa
Largest Lake (Area)	Caspian Sea	Eurasia
Deepest Lake	Lake Baikal	Russia
Double Equator Crosser	Congo River	Africa
Lowest Lake	Dead Sea	West Asia

Mapping Brief

GLOBAL RIVERS & LAKES

MAJOR LAKE SYSTEMS

Basins of Record

The Caspian Sea remains the largest landlocked body. Lake Superior is the freshwater leader by area, while Lake Victoria serves as the tropical source of the White Nile.

DEPTH & SALINITY

Hydrosphere Extremes

Lake Baikal (Russia) is the deepest and oldest, holding 20% of global unfrozen freshwater. The Dead Sea marks Earth’s lowest point and highest salinity.

Navigable Heights

Located on the Peru-Bolivia border, Lake Titicaca is the world’s highest navigable lake, while Tanganyika is the longest freshwater body.

LONGEST RIVER Nile (Africa) 6,650 km.

DEEPEST LAKE Baikal (Russia) 1,642m.

SALTIEST Dead Sea (Israel/Jordan).

Atlas Strategy

Spatial foundation: Mapping transboundary rivers like the Mekong or Brahmaputra is essential for water-diplomacy analysis. Trace the Volga’s path to the Caspian to understand Europe’s largest landlocked drainage system.

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 10 Feb 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 9 Chapter-1 (The French Revolution)

This chapter, “The French Revolution”, chronicles the transformative events that began in 1789, leading to the end of the absolute monarchy in France and the rise of democratic ideals.

1. The Outbreak of Revolution

The revolution began on 14 July 1789, with the storming of the Bastille, a fortress-prison in Paris that symbolized the king’s despotic power.

Causes of Unrest: The city was in a state of alarm due to rumors that the king had ordered the army to fire on citizens.
Economic Distress: Most people were protesting against the high price of bread and widespread food shortages.

2. French Society in the Late 18th Century

Society was organized into the Feudal System of three estates:

First Estate (Clergy): Enjoyed privileges by birth, such as exemption from paying taxes.
Second Estate (Nobility): Also exempted from taxes and extracted feudal dues from peasants.
Third Estate: Comprised 90% of the population, including peasants, artisans, merchants, and lawyers. They bore the entire tax burden, paying tithes to the Church and a direct tax (taille) to the state.

3. The Struggle to Survive

Population Growth: The population rose from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789, leading to a rapid increase in the demand for foodgrains.
Subsistence Crisis: Production could not keep pace with demand; wages stayed fixed while bread prices rose, leading to frequent food riots and a “subsistence crisis”.

4. The Rise of the Middle Class

The 18th century saw the emergence of a social group termed the Middle Class, who earned their wealth through overseas trade and manufacturing.

Philosophical Influence: Thinkers like John Locke (Two Treatises of Government) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (The Social Contract) argued against the divine right of kings and proposed a government based on a social contract between people and their representatives.
Montesquieu: In The Spirit of the Laws, he proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, executive, and judiciary.

5. Key Revolutionary Milestones

The Estates General: In May 1789, Louis XVI called a meeting to pass new tax proposals. The Third Estate demanded that each member have one vote, rather than each estate having one vote.
National Assembly: After the king rejected their proposal, the Third Estate declared themselves a National Assembly and swore the Tennis Court Oath, vowing not to disperse until they had drafted a constitution for France.
Constitutional Monarchy: In 1791, the Assembly completed the draft of the constitution, which limited the powers of the monarch and assigned them to different institutions.

6. The Abolition of Monarchy and the Terror

France Becomes a Republic: In 1792, the newly elected convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Louis XVI was executed for treason in January 1793.
The Reign of Terror (1793-1794): Under Maximilien Robespierre, the government followed a policy of severe control and punishment. Anyone seen as an “enemy” of the republic was guillotined. Robespierre himself was eventually convicted and executed in 1794.

7. Legacy of the Revolution

The ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity were the most important legacy of the French Revolution.

Abolition of Slavery: One of the most revolutionary social reforms was the abolition of slavery in French colonies in 1794 (though it was later reintroduced by Napoleon).
Napoleon Bonaparte: Following the instability of the Directory, Napoleon rose to power, crowning himself Emperor of France in 1804. He saw himself as a “moderniser of Europe”.

NCERT History • Class-9

Chapter – 1

The French Revolution

Revolutionary Milestones

Bastille (14 July 1789): The storming of the fortress-prison signaled the end of the King’s despotic power.

National Assembly: Third Estate took the Tennis Court Oath to draft a constitution limiting the monarchy.

The Republic: Convention abolished the monarchy in 1792; Louis XVI was executed for treason in 1793.

Reign of Terror (1793-94): Under Robespierre, “enemies of the republic” were guillotined. He was eventually executed himself.

Napoleon Bonaparte: Rose through military instability to crown himself Emperor in 1804, seeing himself as Europe’s “moderniser.”

Tithes & Taille

Tax paid to the Church and direct tax paid to the state by the Third Estate.

Guillotine

A device consisting of two poles and a blade used for beheading people.

Jacobins

A political club of the less prosperous sections of society led by Robespierre.

Modern Legacy

The French Revolution’s true legacy lies in the universal ideals of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. It transformed subjects into citizens and laid the foundation for democratic rights across the modern world.

⚖️Indian Polity: High Courts (Articles 214–231)

In the Indian single integrated judicial system, the High Court (HC) operates below the Supreme Court but is the highest judicial authority within a State. For your “IAS PCS Mission 2026” repository, it is crucial to note that while the SC and HC share many powers, their jurisdictions differ significantly, especially regarding Writs.

The High Courts in the States (Articles 214–231)

According to Article 214, there shall be a High Court for each State. However, the 7th Amendment Act (1956) authorized Parliament to establish a common High Court for two or more States or for two or more States and a Union Territory.

1. Composition and Appointment (Article 216 & 217)

Strength: Unlike the Supreme Court (where Parliament decides the strength), the strength of a High Court is decided by the President from time to time based on the workload.
Appointment: Judges are appointed by the President.
- The Chief Justice of the HC is appointed after consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and the Governor of the State.
- For other judges, the Chief Justice of the respective High Court is also consulted.

Qualifications for a Judge:

Must be a citizen of India.
Must have held a judicial office in India for 10 years.
- OR been an advocate of a High Court for 10 years.
- Note: Unlike the SC, there is no provision for a “distinguished jurist” to be appointed as a HC judge.

2. Tenure and Removal

Tenure: A judge holds office until the age of 62 years (SC is 65).
Resignation: By writing to the President.
Removal: The process is identical to that of a Supreme Court judge. They can be removed by the President only after an address by Parliament (Special Majority) on grounds of proved misbehavior or incapacity.

3. Jurisdiction and Powers of High Courts

The High Court is a “Court of Record” (Article 215) and has the power to punish for its own contempt.

A. Writ Jurisdiction (Article 226) – Very Important

The HC has the power to issue writs for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights AND for any other purpose (legal rights).

Comparison: The Writ jurisdiction of the High Court is wider than that of the Supreme Court (Art 32 only covers Fundamental Rights).

B. Supervisory Jurisdiction (Article 227)

Every High Court has the power of superintendence over all courts and tribunals throughout the territories in relation to which it exercises jurisdiction (except military courts).

C. Control over Subordinate Courts (Article 235)

The HC is consulted by the Governor in the appointment, posting, and promotion of district judges. It also handles matters of state judicial services.

4. Key Articles & Common High Courts

Article	Provision
215	High Court to be a Court of Record.
226	Power to issue Writs (Wider than Art 32).
227	Power of Superintendence over all courts.
231	Establishment of a Common High Court for two or more States.

Examples of Common High Courts:

Bombay HC: Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu.
Guwahati HC: Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh.
Punjab & Haryana HC: Punjab, Haryana, and Chandigarh.
Calcutta HC: West Bengal and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

5. Summary Table: SC vs. HC

Feature	Supreme Court	High Court
Retirement Age	65 Years	62 Years
Writ Article	Art 32 (Narrower)	Art 226 (Wider)
Appointment	President	President
Distinguished Jurist	Can be appointed	Cannot be appointed
Removal	By President on Parl. advice	By President on Parl. advice

IAS PCS Mission 2026 • State Judiciary

Articles 214–231

The High Courts

Writ Jurisdiction (Art. 226)

Wider Scope: HC issues writs for Fundamental Rights AND “any other purpose” (legal rights), making its scope wider than the SC (Art 32).

Supervisory Power (Art. 227)

The High Court exercises superintendence over all courts and tribunals within its territory, excluding military courts.

Administrative Control

Under Art. 235, the HC is consulted by the Governor for the appointment and posting of District Judges.

Court of Record

Under Art. 215, the High Court judgments are recorded for memory and it has power to punish for contempt.

Common HCs

Under Art. 231, Parliament can establish one HC for multiple States/UTs (e.g., Bombay or Guwahati HC).

Removal Process

Identical to SC judges: President’s order after Special Majority in Parliament for misbehavior or incapacity.

The Legal
Distinction

While the Supreme Court is the apex, the High Court serves as the highest judicial body of the State. Key differences remain: the retirement age (62 vs 65), the broader Writ power of the HC, and the lack of a “distinguished jurist” appointment category for the state bench.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (10-February-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for February 10, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Back on Track: Repairing India-Malaysia Ties

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India; International Relations).

Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s 24-hour visit to Kuala Lumpur marks a strategic effort to reset and strengthen bilateral relations after a period of strain in 2025.

Key Points:

Making Amends: Malaysia was the PM’s first foreign destination of 2026, following the short-notice cancellation of a visit for the ASEAN summit in October 2025.
Counter-Terrorism Consensus: A significant joint statement unequivocally condemned “cross-border terrorism,” signaling a alignment on security concerns despite previous disagreements.
High-Tech Cooperation: Both nations signed an MoU on semiconductors, linking IIT Madras Global with the Advanced Semiconductor Academy of Malaysia.
Side-stepping Contentious Issues: The two sides carefully avoided public discussion on sensitive topics, such as the continued stay of preacher Zakir Naik in Malaysia.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “India’s Act East Policy,” “Bilateral Security Cooperation,” and “Geopolitics of Southeast Asia.”

Detailed Analysis:

Economic Pivot: The visit aims to revive negotiations on the ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA), which had stalled due to critical comments from Indian trade officials.
Strategic Multi-alignment: As India pursues major FTAs with Europe and the U.S., maintaining strong ties with ASEAN partners like Malaysia is vital for regional stability.
BRICS Engagement: India “noted” Malaysia’s aspirations to join BRICS; Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim will be invited as a partner country to the upcoming summit chaired by India.

2. Stifling Ideas: The Misuse of Criminal Law against Art

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Important aspects of governance; Judiciary; Fundamental Rights).

Context: A critique of the Uttar Pradesh government’s direction to file an FIR against the makers of a film titled Ghooskhor Pandat on grounds of hurting religious and caste sentiments.

Key Points:

Compelled Capitulation: The threat of criminal proceedings forced the producer to remove promotional materials even before judicial examination of the facts.
Constitutional Protection: Article 19(1)(a) is designed to protect speech that may be unwelcome to powerful groups; restrictions under Article 19(2) must be proportionate.
Sentiment as a Threshold: The editorial argues that in a diverse society, “sentiments” are not a useful legal threshold to trigger criminal processes.
Marketplace of Ideas: Normalizing erasure of contested material prevents society from exercising democratic responses like boycotts or satire and wilts the public sphere.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Freedom of Speech and Expression,” “Role of the Executive,” and “Legal Standards of Offensiveness.”

Detailed Analysis:

Executive Overreach: Directing police action for dislike of a title is viewed as an attempt to “flatten the issue to a matter of discipline” rather than public debate.
Pattern of Restriction: Recent examples including bans on The Kerala Story and the BBC documentary India: The Modi Question suggest a trend of using state machinery to curb visual arts.
Judicial Recourse: A more sensible response to claims of unlawfulness is seeking judicial relief rather than unilateral executive action.

3. The Next Big Commodity: The Mineable Self

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Science and Technology; Impact of technology) and GS Paper 1 (Social issues).

Context: An analysis by Arjun Appadurai on how digital markets and technology platforms are transforming human sociality and identity into a global commodity for extraction.

Key Points:

Capitalist Extraction: Beyond raw materials or AI, “sociality itself”—friendships, affinities, and personal stories—is now the primary object of capitalist mining.
End of Privacy: This “profiling on steroids” renders traditional concepts like intimacy and trust obsolete by treating them as resources to be mined without limit.
The Story Economy: OTT streaming and social media colonize the marketplace by hunting for “local flavor” and universal character types to commodify.
Artificial vs. Human: AI bots (Siri, ChatGPT) now compete with humans over judgement and intuition, further deconstructing the unified individual.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Digital Ethics,” “Privacy in the Age of Big Data,” and the “Sociology of the Internet.”

Detailed Analysis:

Sources of the Selfie: Enlightenment values of personal liberty are being replaced by an unstable composite of credit scores and algorithmic consumer profiles.
Democratisation Risk: While anyone can now reach an audience through “lucky virality,” this trend facilitates the relentless rush to “drill into every living mineshaft” of the human experience.

4. A Chance for India to Polish the Kimberley Process

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India) and GS Paper 3 (Economy).

Context: India has assumed the chair of the Kimberley Process (KP) for 2026, providing a platform to reform the global governance of the diamond trade.

Key Points:

India’s Leverage: As the world’s leading cutting and polishing hub, importing 40% of global rough diamonds, India holds unique influence in the value chain.
Defining ‘Conflict’: A major criticism is the KP’s narrow definition of conflict diamonds, which ignores state-linked abuses, human rights violations, and environmental harm.
Technological Solutions: India can promote digital, tamper-proof blockchain-based certificates to reduce fraud and modernize customs data exchange.
Focus on Livelihoods: The narrative needs to shift from merely blocking “bad diamonds” to enabling a responsible trade that supports African mining communities.

UPSC Relevance: Critical for “International Resource Governance,” “India’s Leadership in the Global South,” and “Supply Chain Ethics.”

Detailed Analysis:

Institutional Reform: India may form technical working groups to build consensus on human rights risks beyond simple rebel insurgencies.
Tripartite Strength: By facilitating open communication between governments, industry, and civil society, India can ensure the KP remains a progressive multilateral body.

5. Lessons about Job Creation from Misty Milk

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Issues relating to employment; MSMEs).

Context: A case study of a dairy processing plant in Erode, Tamil Nadu, that highlights structural barriers preventing jobs-intensive growth in India.

Key Points:

Credit Bottleneck: The primary constraint is not lack of demand or infrastructure, but small producers’ inability to access affordable and reliable formal credit to scale production.
Aggregation Power: Inspired by the Amul model, the lesson is that scaling requires solving credit constraints at the producer level through institutional support.
MSME Resilience: Erode’s industrial landscape shows that small firms are ready to grow but are held back by regulatory complexity, skill gaps, and tax uncertainty.
Job Absorption: Large infrastructure projects alone cannot absorb India’s labor force; employment at scale must come from MSMEs and agro-processing.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Inclusive Growth,” “Rural Development,” and “Financial Inclusion Strategy.”

Detailed Analysis:

Demographic Clock: India has roughly two decades before its working-age population advantage begins to narrow; failing to create quality jobs now will result in a lost opportunity.
Global Precedent: The World Bank estimates SMEs provide nearly 70% of global employment, making them the most vital lever for India’s job crisis.

Editorial Analysis

FEBRUARY 10, 2026

GS-3 TECH / SOCIAL The Mineable Self

“Sociality itself” extracted as a commodity. Profiling on steroids renders intimacy and trust obsolete in the story economy.

GS-2/3 ECONOMY Kimberley Process 2026

India takes the Chair. Push for Blockchain Certificates and broadening the ‘Conflict’ definition to include state-linked abuses.

GS-3 MSME / JOBS Job Creation Barriers

Lessons from Erode’s dairy plants; Credit Bottlenecks and regulatory complexity hold back the vital MSME employment engine.

DIPLOMACY: Resetting ties with Malaysia is vital for Act East and AITIGA negotiations amidst shifting global FTAs.

ECONOMY: India holds unique leverage as a 40% rough diamond importer to reform global resource governance.

INFRASTRUCTURE: Scaling MSMEs requires solving credit constraints at the producer level through institutional aggregation.

SOCIAL: Algorithmic consumer profiles are replacing personal liberty, drilling into every “living mineshaft” of experience.

GS-4
Freedom of Art

Executive Overreach: Article 19(1)(a) must protect contested speech. Sentiment-based FIRs flatten democratic debate into state discipline, wilting the public sphere and silencing the marketplace of ideas.

Mapping:

Today’s mapping notes focus on the essential global markers—the Equator, the Tropics, and the Prime Meridian.

1. Countries Lying on the Equator (0° Latitude)

The Equator passes through 13 countries across three continents. It is the only latitude that is a “Great Circle.”

South America (3): Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil.
Africa (7): Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, São Tomé and Príncipe.
Asia/Oceania (3): Maldives, Indonesia, Kiribati.
Mapping Tip: Note that while the Equator passes through the territorial waters of Maldives and Kiribati, it does not touch their actual landmass.

2. Countries Lying on the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N Latitude)

This line marks the northernmost point where the sun is directly overhead (June Solstice). It passes through 17 countries.

North America (2): Mexico, Bahamas.
Africa (7): Western Sahara (disputed), Mauritania, Mali, Algeria, Niger, Libya, Egypt.
Asia (8): Saudi Arabia, UAE, Oman, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Taiwan.
Strategic Point: In India, it passes through 8 states: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, and Mizoram.

3. Countries Lying on the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S Latitude)

This line marks the southernmost point where the sun is directly overhead (December Solstice). It passes through 10 countries.

South America (4): Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil.
Africa (5): Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar.
Oceania (1): Australia.
Key Fact: Brazil is the only country in the world that is crossed by both the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn.

4. Countries Lying on the Prime Meridian (0° Longitude)

The Prime Meridian (Greenwich Meridian) divides the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It passes through 8 countries.

Europe (3): United Kingdom, France, Spain.
Africa (5): Algeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, Togo, Ghana.
Mapping Context: The Prime Meridian and the Equator intersect in the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean), near the coast of Ghana.

Summary Mapping Table

Landmark	Continent Count	Country Count	Key Geographic Focus
Equator	3	13	Tropical Rainforests (Amazon, Congo, Indonesia).
Tropic of Cancer	3	17	Deserts (Sahara, Thar) and Monsoon Belts (India).
Tropic of Capricorn	3	10	Atacama Desert, Australian Outback.
Prime Meridian	2	8	Greenwich (UK) and the Gulf of Guinea.

Mapping Brief

ESSENTIAL GLOBAL MARKERS

TROPIC OF CANCER (23.5°N)

Northern Solstice Line

Crosses 17 nations including Mexico, Egypt, and India. In the Indian context, it traverses 8 States: from Gujarat in the west to Mizoram in the east.

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN (23.5°S)

Southern Solstice Line

Traverses 10 nations across South America, Africa, and Australia. Brazil is uniquely the only nation crossed by both the Equator and this Tropic.

Regional Geographic Focus

These markers define global climate belts, from the Tropical Rainforests of the Equator to the Arid Deserts (Sahara/Atacama) along the Tropics.

EQUATOR 13 Countries (Great Circle).

CANCER 8 Indian States (GJ to MZ).

CAPRICORN Crossing Brazil and Australia.

Atlas Strategy

Spatial foundation: Understanding the 0°/0° coordinate in the Gulf of Guinea is the starting point for global navigation. Trace the Monsoon Belt along the Tropic of Cancer to visualize India’s unique climatic position.

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 9 Feb 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-12 (India After Independence)

This chapter, “India After Independence”, examines the immense challenges faced by the newly independent nation and the steps taken to build a modern, democratic, and unified India.

1. Immediate Challenges of a New Nation

When India became independent in August 1947, it faced a series of monumental challenges that threatened its stability.

The Refugee Crisis

Mass Migration: As a result of Partition, approximately 8 million refugees arrived in India from what became Pakistan.
Rehabilitation: The government faced the immediate task of finding homes and providing jobs for these millions of displaced people.

The Integration of Princely States

Political Fragmentation: There were almost 500 princely states, each ruled by a Maharaja or a Nawab.
Unification: Each of these rulers had to be persuaded to join the new nation to ensure a unified India.

Economic and Social Divisions

Population Size: In 1947, India’s population was large, totaling almost 345 million people.
Deep Divisions: The population was deeply divided between high castes and low castes, the majority Hindu community and other religious minorities, and various linguistic groups.
Poverty: Agriculture was the primary livelihood, and if the monsoon failed, millions of farmers and non-farm workers (like weavers and barbers) would go hungry.

2. Framing the Constitution

Between December 1946 and November 1949, approximately 300 Indians met in a series of sessions as part of the Constituent Assembly to frame the nation’s political future. The Constitution was adopted on January 26, 1950.

Key Features of the Constitution

Universal Adult Franchise: One of the most significant features was granting the right to vote in state and national elections to all Indians above the age of 21 (now 18). This was a revolutionary step, as even in countries like the UK and US, this right had been granted in stages.
Equality Before the Law: The Constitution guaranteed equality to all citizens regardless of their caste or religious affiliation.
Safeguards for the Disadvantaged:
- Abolition of Untouchability: The practice of untouchability, described as a “slur and a blot” on India, was abolished.
- Reservations: A percentage of seats in legislatures and government jobs were reserved for the lowest castes (Harijans) and Adivasis (Scheduled Tribes) to compensate for centuries of discrimination.

The Division of Powers

To balance the authority of the Central government and the States, the Constitution created three lists of subjects:

Union List: Includes taxes, defense, and foreign affairs; these are the sole responsibility of the Center.
State List: Includes education and health; these are primarily the responsibility of the States.
Concurrent List: Includes forests and agriculture; both the Center and States have joint responsibility for these.

3. The Creation of Linguistic States

Initially, Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy PM Vallabhbhai Patel were reluctant to divide the country further on linguistic lines, fearing it would lead to more conflict after the trauma of Partition.

Protests for Statehood: Strong protests emerged from Kannada, Malayalam, and Marathi speakers.
The Case of Andhra: The strongest protest came from Telugu speakers in the Madras Presidency.
Potti Sriramulu: He went on a hunger strike demanding a separate state for Telugu speakers and died after 58 days.
First Linguistic State: Following his death and subsequent riots, the government was forced to create the state of Andhra on October 1, 1953.
States Reorganisation Commission: In 1956, the commission recommended redrawing state boundaries based on major languages like Bengali, Tamil, Malayalam, and Punjabi.

4. Planning for Economic Development

Lifting India out of poverty through modern technical and industrial development was a primary goal.

The Planning Commission: Set up in 1950 to design and execute policies for economic growth.
The Mixed Economy Model: India adopted a model where both the State and the private sector would play important and complementary roles in production and job creation.
The Second Five Year Plan (1956): This plan focused heavily on building heavy industries (such as steel) and constructing massive dams like Bhakra Nangal.

5. The Nation after Sixty Years (A Review)

On August 15, 2007, India celebrated 60 years of independence.

Successes

Unity and Democracy: Contrary to foreign predictions that India would break up or fall under military rule, it remained a single, united, and democratic country.
Democratic Institutions: India maintains a free press, an independent judiciary, and regular elections.

Failures

Social Inequality: Deep divisions persist, and Dalits (formerly untouchables) still face violence and discrimination in many parts of the country.
The Wealth Gap: The gap between the rich and the poor has widened; while some enjoy luxury and expensive schools, others continue to live in poverty in slums or rural areas without basic facilities.

NCERT History • Class-8

Chapter – 12

India After Independence

Birth Challenges

Refugee Crisis: 8 million people arrived from Pakistan needing homes and jobs.

Princely States: 500 rulers had to be persuaded by Sardar Patel to join the unified nation.

Economic Fragility: A population of 345 million faced deep poverty and monsoon-dependent agriculture.

The Constitution

Universal Franchise: Revolutionary step giving all adults the right to vote regardless of gender or class.

Division of Powers: Created Union, State, and Concurrent lists to balance Center and State authority.

Building a Modern Republic

Social Justice: The 1950 Constitution abolished Untouchability and introduced Reservations for Scheduled Castes and Tribes.

Linguistic States: Despite initial reluctance, the death of Potti Sriramulu led to the creation of Andhra (1953) and the 1956 reorganization of states by language.

Economic Planning: The Planning Commission (1950) adopted a “Mixed Economy” model. The Second Five Year Plan (1956) prioritized heavy industry and dams like Bhakra Nangal.

Democratic Resilience: Over sixty years later, India proved skeptics wrong by remaining a single, united, and democratic nation with an independent judiciary.

Persistent Gaps: While successful in unity, failures remain in the form of deep social inequality and a widening wealth gap between the urban rich and rural poor.

Concurrent List

Subjects like forest and agriculture where both Center and States have joint responsibility.

Mixed Economy

Development model where both State and private sectors play complementary roles.

Harijans

A term used for the lowest castes, for whom seats were reserved in legislatures.

Sixty Years On

India’s journey after 1947 is a testament to democratic persistence. While the nation has successfully maintained its unity and institutional freedom, the struggle to bridge social and economic divides remains its greatest unfinished task.

⚖️Indian Polity: The Supreme Court (Art 124-147): Appointment & Qualification

The Judiciary in India is a single, integrated system, with the Supreme Court (SC) at the apex. Unlike the federal systems of the USA, where there are separate sets of laws for the Union and States, the Indian Supreme Court enforces both Central and State laws.

The Supreme Court of India (Articles 124–147)

The Supreme Court was inaugurated on January 28, 1950, replacing the Federal Court of India established under the Government of India Act, 1935.

1. Composition and Appointment (Article 124)

Strength: Currently, the SC consists of 34 judges (1 Chief Justice + 33 other judges). The power to increase the number of judges lies with Parliament.
Appointment: Every judge of the SC is appointed by the President.
The Collegium System: Judges are appointed after consultation with a “Collegium” consisting of the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and the four senior-most judges of the SC.

Qualifications for a Judge:

Must be a citizen of India.
Must have been a Judge of a High Court for at least 5 years.
- OR an Advocate of a High Court for at least 10 years.
- OR a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.

2. Tenure and Removal

Tenure: A judge holds office until the age of 65 years. They can resign by writing to the President.
Removal (Impeachment): A judge can be removed only by an order of the President based on a motion passed by both Houses of Parliament in the same session.
- Grounds: Proved misbehavior or incapacity.
- Majority Required: Special Majority (Majority of total membership + 2/3rd of members present and voting).

3. Jurisdictions of the Supreme Court

The SC has the widest jurisdiction of any court in the world.

A. Original Jurisdiction (Article 131)

The SC acts as an arbiter in disputes between:

The Centre and one or more States.
The Centre and any State(s) on one side and one or more States on the other.
Two or more States.

B. Writ Jurisdiction (Article 32)

The SC is the “Guarantor and Protector” of Fundamental Rights. It can issue writs like Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, and Quo-Warranto.

C. Appellate Jurisdiction (Articles 132–134)

The SC is the highest court of appeal. It hears appeals against High Court judgments in:

Constitutional matters.
Civil matters.
Criminal matters.

D. Advisory Jurisdiction (Article 143)

The President can seek the opinion of the SC on:

A question of law or fact of public importance.
Disputes arising out of pre-constitution treaties.

Note: The SC’s opinion is not binding on the President.

4. Other Key Powers

Court of Record (Article 129): The judgments of the SC are recorded for perpetual memory and testimony. It also has the power to punish for contempt of court.
Judicial Review: The power to examine the constitutionality of legislative enactments and executive orders.
Curative Petition: The final legal resort to reconsider a judgment after a review petition is dismissed (evolved in the Rupa Ashok Hurra v. Ashok Hurra case).

Summary Table

Article	Key Power / Provision	Core Detail
124	Establishment	Appointment and Qualifications.
129	Court of Record	Power to punish for contempt.
131	Original Jurisdiction	Federal disputes (Centre vs States).
136	Special Leave Petition	Discretionary power to hear any appeal.
141	Law of the Land	SC decisions are binding on all courts.
143	Advisory Power	President seeking SC opinion.

Constitutional Apex • Art. 124-147

The Supreme Court of India

Appointment & Jurisdictions

Composition & Appointment

Strength: 34 judges (1 CJI + 33 others). Appointment follows the Collegium System (CJI + 4 senior-most judges).

Original Jurisdiction (Art. 131)

The arbiter in Federal Disputes between the Centre and States or between two or more States.

Advisory Power (Art. 143)

The President may seek SC opinion on questions of public importance or pre-constitution treaties. Opinion is not binding.

Writ Power

Under Art. 32, SC is the guarantor of Fundamental Rights (Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, etc.).

Court of Record

Under Art. 129, judgments are recorded for testimony; includes power to punish for contempt.

SLP (Art. 136)

Discretionary power to hear any appeal against any judgment by any court or tribunal in India.

Law of
The Land

Under Article 141, the law declared by the Supreme Court is binding on all courts within India. This ensures a single integrated judicial system where the SC holds the power of Judicial Review to examine the constitutionality of all legislative and executive actions.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (9-February-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for February 9, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Question and Answer: Parliamentary Accountability

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Parliament and State Legislatures—Structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers & privileges and issues arising out of these).

Context: The Lok Sabha recently departed from convention by adopting the Motion of Thanks to the President’s address without a reply from the Prime Minister.

Key Points:

Unusual Departure: The Lok Sabha adopted the motion without the customary PM’s reply on February 5.
Security Concerns: Speaker Om Birla stated he requested the PM not to attend due to “credible inputs” about potential disruptions or harm near the PM’s seat.
Procedural Violations: Parliamentary rules require a debate on the Motion of Thanks to conclude with the PM’s reply; closing without it requires a specific resolution.
Disallowed Speech: The Leader of the Opposition (LoP), Rahul Gandhi, was barred from citing excerpts from a book by former Army Chief General M.M. Naravane.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Parliamentary Procedures,” “Executive Accountability,” and “Role of the Speaker.”

Detailed Analysis:

Erosion of Accountability: The debate and reply function as a core mechanism for holding the executive accountable; skipping it is viewed as a disturbing erosion of this norm.
Evading Critical Issues: The book in question raises serious national security issues; the editorial argues that denying elected members the chance to discuss them is indefensible.
Passing the Buck: The portions cited outside the House suggest a tendency of the political executive to evade decision-making by “passing the buck”.

2. A Social Media Ban Will Not Save Our Children

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Government policies and interventions; Issues arising out of their design and implementation) and GS Paper 1 (Social issues).

Context: Following a tragedy in Ghaziabad where three sisters ended their lives due to alleged screen addiction, there are growing calls for a social media ban for minors.

Key Points:

Global Templates: Australia (December 2025) and Spain (February 2026) have moved to ban social media for those under 16.
Technical Porosity: Such bans are easily bypassed via VPNs or can push users to the “dark web” where grooming and extremism thrive.
Gender Inequality: A ban may calcify inequalities; data shows only 33.3% of Indian women use the Internet compared to 57.1% of men.
Digital Lifeline: For queer, differently-abled, or rural youth, these platforms are often the only window to supportive communities.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Digital Rights,” “Mental Health Policy,” and “Technology Governance.”

Detailed Analysis:

Moral Panic: Society often labels complex problems as “folk devils,” leading to disproportionate and symbolic crackdowns rather than solutions.
Need for “Duty of Care”: Instead of bans, the editorial advocates for a robust digital competition law and legally enforceable “duty of care” obligations for platforms.
Research Gap: India lacks longitudinal research on how social media shapes local children’s well-being across class, caste, and region.

3. Messaging Power: Scrutinising WhatsApp’s Policies

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability) and GS Paper 3 (Internal security; Challenges to internal security through communication networks).

Context: The Supreme Court is questioning Meta/WhatsApp over its 2021 update regarding user data sharing with Instagram and Facebook.

Key Points:

Network Effect: WhatsApp’s dominance makes it practically impossible for individuals or businesses to function without being on the platform.
CCI Penalty: The Competition Commission of India issued a ₹213.14 crore penalty for the “accept or cease” ultimatum regarding privacy changes.
Inadequate Remedies: Allowing users to “opt out” is seen as ineffective at such a massive scale where “default power” leaves little real choice.
Encryption Standards: The app’s adoption of end-to-end encryption established secure communication as a societal norm in India.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Data Privacy,” “Digital Competition Law,” and “Big Tech Regulation.”

Detailed Analysis:

Transformation of Communication: WhatsApp has provided free telephony and messaging services that were prohibitively expensive before 2016.
Legislative Lag: While the SC’s views are noted as correct, they require the support of a digital competition law, which has stalled since its 2024 draft.
Advertising Pivot: As the platform transitions to an advertising model, its status as a ubiquitous utility demands the highest level of regulatory scrutiny.

4. Myanmar’s Military-Scripted Polls and India’s Bind

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (India and its neighborhood—relations; Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests).

Context: Five years after the 2021 coup, Myanmar’s military held “elections” between late 2025 and January 2026, which were won by the military-aligned USDP.

Key Points:

Controlled Participation: Voting was permitted in only 265 of 330 townships; rural areas under resistance influence were largely excluded.
Turnout Decline: Turnout fell to roughly 55% (from 70% in 2015/2020), reflecting widespread rejection of the scripted exercise.
Credibility Deficit: The junta dissolved major opposition parties like the NLD and jailed senior leaders.
Refugee Crisis: India currently hosts 90,100 displaced Myanmar nationals in Mizoram and Manipur.

UPSC Relevance: Critical for “Act East Policy,” “Regional Stability,” and “Non-traditional Security Threats.”

Detailed Analysis:

Strategic Dilemma: India must manage ties with the regime for security/connectivity while supporting a democratic transition without legitimising the junta.
Project Delays: Major initiatives like the Kaladan Multi-Modal Project and the Trilateral Highway face repeated delays due to frontier insecurity.
Cyber Slavery: Emerging threats include cyber scam centres in border conflict zones; 2,165 Indians have been rescued from these networks since 2022.

5. Linguistic and Cultural Markers for Caste Enumeration

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Governance) and GS Paper 1 (Social Empowerment).

Context: Scholar G.N. Devy suggests that mother tongues and cultural markers could solve the technical challenges of the upcoming 2027 caste census.

Key Points:

Methodology Debate: Some advocate for an “open field” (used in 2011 SECC), while others prefer a “pre-compiled list” (used in Bihar’s survey).
Data Condensation: The 2011 SECC returned 46 lakh caste names; linguistic modeling could filter these into a comprehensive, manageable list.
DNT Alienation: Failing to separately count Denotified Tribes (DNTs) could alienate over 10 crore people.
Reference Points: Anthropological Survey of India projects like “People of India” could serve as vital certification points.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Caste Census,” “Tribal Rights,” and “Social Statistics in Planning.”

Detailed Analysis:

Mother Tongue Lead: The process could mirror the 2011 linguistic census, which distilled 19,000 mother tongues down to 1,369 verified languages.
Shared Identity: Using the example of the Sansi/Kanjar community, Devy explains how different names across states can be linked through a shared language (Bhaktu) and ancestry.
Open Scrutiny: This scientific model requires the government to keep data open for scrutiny by independent scholars.

Editorial Analysis

FEBRUARY 09, 2026

GS-2 POLITY Parliamentary Accountability

Motion of Thanks adopted without PM’s reply on Security Grounds. Skipping the customary response is seen as a core erosion of executive accountability.

GS-2 GOV / GS-1 SOC Social Media Ban Debate

Growing calls for minor bans post-Ghaziabad tragedy. Technical porosity and Gender Inequality (only 33% women Internet users) suggest bans may backfire.

GS-2/1 SOCIAL Caste Enumeration Markers

Using Mother Tongues to filter 46 lakh caste names. Linguistic modeling could solve the technical challenges of the upcoming 2027 Census.

PARLIAMENT: Skipping PM’s reply functions as a disturbing precedent for evading critical national security debates.

TECHNOLOGY: Need legally enforceable “Duty of Care” obligations rather than symbolic social media bans.

NEIGHBORHOOD: Frontier insecurity threatens major projects like the Kaladan Multi-Modal Project and Trilateral Highway.

SOCIETY: Linguistic census methodology could distill 19,000 mother tongues into manageable verified identity markers.

GS-4
Accountability

Transparency vs. Convenience: Parliamentary reply mechanisms are not just ceremonies; they are the bedrock of democratic accountability. True institutional strength lies in addressing National Security issues openly, rather than citing “credible inputs” to bypass mandatory executive scrutiny.

Mapping:

Todays mapping notes focus on Undivided Borders, Wetland Conservation Milestones, and Strategic Science Infrastructure.

1. Cartographic Diplomacy: The Undivided Map of India

A major highlight this week is the “Cartographic Message” in the India-US Interim Trade Agreement.

Strategic Shift: The official map released by the US Trade Representative (USTR) depicts the entirety of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh—including Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) and Aksai Chin—as part of India.
Significance: This marks a departure from typical US government maps that show these regions as disputed. For your website, locate Aksai Chin (claimed by China) and PoK to show users this “Symbolic Diplomatic Validation”.

2. Environmental Mapping: The 98 Ramsar Sites Tally

As of early February 2026, India has reached a landmark 98 Ramsar Sites, maintaining its lead in Asia.

New Ramsar Site	District/State	Key Biodiversity
Patna Bird Sanctuary	Etah, Uttar Pradesh	A critical stopover for over 178 migratory bird species; known for Sarus Cranes.
Chhari-Dhand Wetland	Kutch, Gujarat	A seasonal desert wetland in the Banni grasslands; home to the Caracal, Desert Fox, and Grey Wolf.

State Ranking: Tamil Nadu remains the national leader with 20 sites, followed by Uttar Pradesh with 11 sites.

3. Strategic Infrastructure: Solar Science in Ladakh

The high-altitude plateau of Ladakh is becoming a global hub for space and solar research.

National Large Solar Telescope (NLST): Mapped at Pangong Lake, Ladakh. Its location is vital due to low atmospheric interference and high-altitude clarity.
Aditya-L1 Observations: Early February 2026 marks the first “Announcement of Opportunity” cycle for scientists to utilize data from India’s solar mission.

4. Disaster Management: New Nationally Notified Disasters

The 16th Finance Commission (2026–31) has officially recommended mapping and funding for two new disaster categories.

Heatwaves & Lightning: These are now included as nationally notified disasters.
Mapping Requirement: For your geography notes, mark the “Lightning Corridor” (Eastern and Central India) and the “Heatwave Belt” (North-Western and Central India) as high-priority zones for SDRF funding.

Summary Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Key Location
Territorial Map	Undivided J&K and Ladakh	USTR Interim Trade Map.
Wetland Leader	Tamil Nadu (20 Sites)	South India.
Space Hub	Pangong Lake	Ladakh (NLST Site).
New Disaster Map	Lightning & Heatwaves	Central & NW India.

Mapping Brief

UNDIVIDED BORDERS & STRATEGIC GRID

WETLAND MILESTONES (RAMSAR)

The 98 Sites Landmark

India leads Asia with 98 sites. Key updates include Patna Bird Sanctuary (UP) and the desert wetland Chhari-Dhand (GJ) in the Banni grasslands.

SPACE & SOLAR SCIENCE

Ladakh Research Infrastructure

The National Large Solar Telescope (NLST) is mapped at Pangong Lake, Ladakh, chosen for its ultra-clear high-altitude atmosphere.

Aditya-L1 Data Integration

Early February 2026 marks the first scientific cycle for solar data analysis, solidifying Ladakh as India’s primary high-altitude space hub.

TERRITORIAL Undivided J&K and Ladakh.

WETLAND LEADER Tamil Nadu (20 Ramsar Sites).

SPACE HUB Pangong Lake (NLST Site).

Atlas Strategy

Spatial foundation: The 16th Finance Commission’s inclusion of **Heatwaves and Lightning** requires a new thematic overlay of urban heat-islands and central-Indian atmospheric corridors on the standard physical map.

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 7 Feb 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-11 (The Making of the National Movement: 1870s-1947)

This chapter, “The Making of the National Movement: 1870s–1947”, provides a comprehensive history of India’s struggle for independence, from the emergence of organized nationalism to the final achievement of freedom and the tragedy of Partition.

1. The Emergence of Nationalism

By the 1870s and 1880s, a new political consciousness emerged among Indians, who realized that British control over India’s resources and lives had to end for the country to belong to its people.

Political Associations and the Congress

Early Associations: Political groups formed after 1850, such as the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Indian Association, and Madras Mahajan Sabha, were led by English-educated professionals who aimed to address Indian grievances.
Foundation of the Congress: The Indian National Congress was established in December 1885 in Bombay with 72 delegates from across India.
Early Leadership: Key early leaders included Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, and W.C. Bonnerji.
Moderate Demands: For the first twenty years, the Congress was “Moderate,” seeking a greater voice for Indians in the government, civil service examinations in India, and the repeal of the discriminatory Arms Act.

The Rise of Radicalism and Swadeshi

Radical Leaders: By the 1890s, leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal) began exploring more radical objectives, emphasizing “self-reliance” and “constructive work” over the Moderates’ petitions.
Tilak’s Slogan: Tilak raised the famous cry, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!”.
Partition of Bengal (1905): Viceroy Curzon partitioned Bengal for “administrative convenience,” which sparked the Swadeshi Movement.
Impact of Swadeshi: This movement opposed British rule, encouraged self-help and Indian education, and advocated the boycott of British goods.

2. The Advent of Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915, having successfully led non-violent protests against racial restrictions there.

Mass Mobilization and Rowlatt Satyagraha

Early Campaigns: Gandhi spent his first year traveling and later led local interventions in Champaran, Kheda, and Ahmedabad.
Rowlatt Act (1919): This act allowed the government to curb fundamental rights such as freedom of expression.
The Satyagraha: Gandhi called for a day of “humiliation and prayer” and a general strike (hartal) against the act, marking the first truly all-India struggle.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: British atrocities in Amritsar on Baisakhi day led to a national outcry, prompting Rabindranath Tagore to renounce his knighthood.

Non-Cooperation and Khilafat

Khilafat Movement: Led by Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, it sought to protect the Turkish Caliphate.
Non-Cooperation (1920): Gandhi merged Khilafat and the demand for Swaraj into a massive movement where Indians boycotted British schools, law courts, and foreign cloth.
End of the Movement: Gandhi called off the struggle in 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, where a mob burned a police station, killing 22 policemen.

3. The Path to Purna Swaraj and Civil Disobedience

Following the mid-1920s, the national movement gained further momentum through constructive work in villages and new political shifts.

The Simon Commission (1927): Indians boycotted this all-British commission sent to decide India’s political future.
Purna Swaraj (1929): Under Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidency, the Congress resolved to fight for “Complete Independence”.
The Salt March (1930): Gandhi marched from Sabarmati to Dandi to break the salt law, which gave the state a monopoly and taxed a basic necessity.
Government of India Act 1935: This act provided for provincial autonomy, and the Congress won elections in 7 out of 11 provinces in 1937.

4. Quit India and the Road to Freedom

The final phase of the struggle occurred against the backdrop of the Second World War.

Quit India Movement (1942): Gandhi launched this movement with the slogan “Do or Die” (Karo ya maro), leading to widespread rebellion despite severe British repression.
The INA: Subhas Chandra Bose established the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) to free India with external support.
Negotiations: After the war, the British held talks with the Congress and the Muslim League. However, the League insisted on a separate nation for Muslims.

5. Independence and the Tragedy of Partition

The joy of independence was marred by the violence of the country’s division.

Failure of Diplomacy: The 1946 Cabinet Mission failed to create a unified framework, leading the Muslim League to call for “Direct Action Day” on August 16, 1946.
Partition (1947): India gained independence but was split into India and Pakistan.
Human Cost: Millions were displaced, and over a million people were killed in the communal riots following the division.

NCERT History • Class-8

Chapter – 11

The Making of the National Movement

The Gandhian Era & Road to Freedom

Advent (1915): Gandhi returned from South Africa; led Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919) as the first all-India struggle.

Non-Cooperation: Gandhi merged Khilafat and Swaraj demands (1920) but called it off after the Chauri Chaura incident (1922).

Civil Disobedience: Under Nehru (1929), Purna Swaraj became the goal. In 1930, Gandhi broke the salt law at Dandi.

Quit India (1942): Launched during WWII with the cry “Do or Die,” leading to a widespread mass uprising.

Partition (1947): Independence was achieved but accompanied by the tragedy of division and communal violence.

Rowlatt Act

1919 ‘Black Act’ that curbed fundamental rights like freedom of expression.

Salt March

240-mile journey to Dandi to break the state monopoly on a basic necessity.

Azad Hind Fauj

The Indian National Army (INA) established by Subhas Chandra Bose.

Soul of a Nation

The national movement was a journey of mass consciousness. It transformed a collection of colonial provinces into a unified people who, through non-violence and persistent struggle, reclaimed their right to self-determination.

⚖️Indian Polity: Parliamentary Committees” (PAC, Estimates, etc.)

Parliamentary Committees are the “Eyes and Ears” of the Parliament. Since the Parliament is a large body with limited time, it cannot scrutinize every legislative and executive action in detail. This work is delegated to committees, which operate in a non-partisan manner.

Parliamentary Committees: The Scrutinizers of Democracy

There are two types of committees:

Standing Committees: Permanent, reconstituted every year.
Ad Hoc Committees: Temporary, created for a specific task and dissolved once the task is completed.

1. Financial Committees

A. Public Accounts Committee (PAC)

Established: First set up in 1921 (Government of India Act, 1919).
Composition: 22 Members (15 from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya Sabha).
Term: 1 Year.
Role: To examine the audit reports of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG).
Key Feature: A Minister cannot be elected as a member. Since 1967, the Chairman is usually from the Opposition.
Memory Trick: Known as the “Twin Sister” of the Estimates Committee.

B. Estimates Committee

Established: On the recommendation of John Mathai (1950).
Composition:30 Members (All 30 are from Lok Sabha only).
- Note: Rajya Sabha has no representation here.
Role: To suggest “economies” in public expenditure. It is often called a ‘Continuous Economy Committee’.
Key Feature: It is the largest Parliamentary Committee.

C. Committee on Public Undertakings (COPU)

Established: On the recommendation of the Krishna Menon Committee (1964).
Composition: 22 Members (15 from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya Sabha).
Role: To examine the reports and accounts of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs).

2. Departmental Standing Committees (DRSCs)

Total: There are 24 Departmental Standing Committees.
Composition: Each committee consists of 31 members (21 from Lok Sabha and 10 from Rajya Sabha).
Role: Their main job is to secure the accountability of the Executive to the Parliament, particularly in the examination of Demands for Grants before they are voted on in the Lok Sabha.

3. Other Important Committees

Committee	Purpose
Business Advisory Committee	Regulates the program and time table of the House.
Committee on Subordinate Legislation	Examines whether the Executive is exercising its power to make “Rules and Bylaws” within the limits delegated by Parliament.
Ethics Committee	Maintains discipline and decorum by examining cases of misconduct by members.
Privileges Committee	Examines cases of “Breach of Privilege” of the House or its members.

Comparison of Financial Committees

Feature	PAC	Estimates Committee	COPU
Members	22 (15 LS + 7 RS)	30 (All LS)	22 (15 LS + 7 RS)
Chairman	Usually Opposition	Usually Ruling Party	Appointed by Speaker
Function	Post-mortem of expenditure	Suggests efficiency/economy	PSU Audit
CAG Link	Works closely with CAG	No direct link	Examines CAG reports on PSUs

Parliamentary Oversight • “Eyes & Ears”

Standing & Financial Committees

Scrutinizers of Democracy

Estimates Committee (Art. 1950)

Composition: 30 Members, all from Lok Sabha only. It is the largest Parliamentary Committee.

Purpose: Known as the ‘Continuous Economy Committee’; it suggests efficiency and economies in public expenditure.

Public Undertakings (COPU)

Composition: 22 Members (15 LS, 7 RS). Examines accounts of PSUs and relevant CAG reports to ensure efficiency.

Business Advisory

Regulates the program and time table of the House. Chaired by the Speaker/Chairman.

Subordinate Leg.

Ensures the Executive makes “Rules & Bylaws” only within the limits delegated by Parliament.

Ethics & Privileges

Examines member misconduct and cases of “Breach of Privilege” to maintain House decorum.

The Non-Partisan
Shield

Parliamentary committees act as a mini-parliament where members work in a non-partisan atmosphere. Notably, a Minister cannot be elected to the PAC, Estimates, or COPU. Since 1967, the PAC Chairman is traditionally from the Opposition, ensuring a fair audit of the government’s financial decisions.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (7-February-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for February 7, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Distressing Regularity: The Meghalaya Rat-Hole Mine Blast

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Environment; Conservation; Disaster Management) and GS Paper 2 (Governance).

Context: An explosion in an illegal rat-hole coal mine in Meghalaya’s East Jaintia Hills on February 5 killed at least 18 workers (toll later rose to 25), highlighting the failure of governance and judicial bans.

Key Points:

Systemic Failure: The tragedy serves as a “grim reminder” that court supervision (such as the 2014 NGT ban) cannot substitute for effective state governance.
Operational Norms: Rat-hole mining persists because it requires minimal investment but lacks engineered roofs and side-wall protections, making collapses frequent.
Accountability Deficit: Fragmented ownership and private landholdings allow operators to keep workers off formal records and underreport accidents.
Supply Chain Laundering: Illegal coal is easily “laundered” into legitimate markets through intermediaries, making it difficult to separate from auctioned or legacy coal.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Environmental Governance,” “Internal Security Challenges (Northeast),” and “Sustainable Mining Policy.”

Detailed Analysis:

Technology as a Deterrent: The editorial advocates for mandatory GPS tracking for coal carriers, drone patrols, and satellite imagery to increase the “expected cost” of illegal transport.
Displacing Incentives: Bans often fail without alternatives; the state must provide credit and market linkages for sectors like horticulture, tourism, and small manufacturing to absorb mining labor.
Administrative Reform: To counter local patronage, the editorial suggests rotating administrative postings in hotspot districts and sharing penalties with local bodies to incentivize community monitoring.

2. ‘Hop-on, Hop-off’: The State of Global Climate Governance

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Environment; Conservation; Climate Change) and GS Paper 2 (International Relations).

Context: A critical look at the structural drift in global climate negotiations following COP30, where processes have multiplied but real action has stalled.

Key Points:

Politics of Science: Scientific certainty is being repurposed by politicians to justify delay and argue that decisive action is perpetually “not yet.”
The “Global Mutirão” Package: COP30 delivered a package emphasizing cooperation, but its measures remain largely voluntary, weakening the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities.”
Finance Gap: Current climate flows for developing countries are under $400 billion per year, while actual needs exceed $2.4 trillion to $3 trillion.
Market Opportunism: In the absence of government action, markets are driving the climate economy based on short-term profits rather than long-term planetary consequences.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Global Environmental Politics,” “UNFCCC and COP Outcomes,” and “Climate Finance.”

Detailed Analysis:

Universal Legitimacy: Despite its flaws and “theatrical ambition,” the UNFCCC remains the only universally legitimate forum for coordinated action; alternatives like G-20 or BRICS lack the necessary legal architecture.
Adaptation Stagnation: While COP30 pledged to “triple” adaptation finance, the lack of a baseline year or binding sources leaves the promise effectively aspirational.
Structural Drift: The editorial warns of a “vacuum” where national interest overrides global urgency, noting that while one can “hop off” a negotiation platform, one cannot “hop off the planet.”

3. The India-EU Trade Deal: A Strategic Turning Point

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India; International Relations).

Context: Analysis of the recently concluded trade agreement between India and the European Union, which marks a shift from mere commercial interests to a broad strategic realignment.

Key Points:

Geopolitical Inflexion: Driven by the “Donroe Doctrine” (U.S. commercial offensives) and threats from China and Russia, the deal aims to stabilize a conflictual international order.
Summit Diplomacy: The breakthrough is attributed to 10 years of high-level engagement and frank exchange that built mutual trust between New Delhi and Brussels.
Strategic Multipolarity: The partnership delivers a “rare opportunity” to give practical meaning to multipolarity, providing a democratic alternative for growth and security.
Supply Chain Resilience: Cooperation on semiconductors, AI, and digital public infrastructure aims to reduce mutual vulnerabilities.

UPSC Relevance: Critical for “India-EU Relations,” “Strategic Autonomy,” and “Global Value Chains.”

Detailed Analysis:

Beyond Tariffs: If confined only to market access, the partnership remains tactical; it must be “fleshed out” in defense, energy, technology, and mobility.
Maritime Stability: There are growing opportunities for joint military exercises and information sharing to ensure freedom of navigation in the Indo-Pacific.
Social Depth: Frictions over visas and professional recognition must be addressed to translate political alignment into societal depth through the mobility of students and researchers.

4. Cycles of Revolt: The Balochistan Security Crisis

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; India and its neighborhood; Effect of regional policies).

Context: Coordinated attacks by the Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) in late January 2026 emphasize the deepening cycle of violence in Pakistan’s largest province.

Key Points:

Deepening Alienation: State crackdowns and counterinsurgency campaigns, involving enforced disappearances and extrajudicial killings, have fueled the very insurgency they seek to crush.
Resource Conflict: Baloch nationalists argue that projects like the $60-billion CPEC proceed with minimal transparency and limited economic benefit for local communities.
The India Bogey: Islamabad’s tendency to reflexively blame India for unrest without verifiable evidence is described as a narrative that avoids necessary introspection.
Militant Regrouping: Deteriorating conditions along the Afghan border have allowed Baloch rebels and the Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) to intensify operations.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Neighborhood Dynamics,” “Regional Security Architecture,” and “Human Rights.”

Detailed Analysis:

Reactive Reprisals: The editorial notes that the military killing of 150 fighters following a BLA attack is unlikely to produce lasting security without political reconciliation.
Path to Stability: Peace requires addressing long-standing grievances of economic exclusion and opening channels for dialogue even with rebel groups.

5. Ground Zero: A Murder for a Panchayat Dream

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Governance; Welfare schemes; Important aspects of governance) and GS Paper 1 (Social Issues).

Context: A tragic case in Telangana where a father allegedly killed his daughter to bypass Maharashtra’s “two-child rule” so his wife could contest local elections.

Key Points:

The Two-Child Norm: Imposed by several states in the 1990s as a population control measure, the rule disqualifies candidates with more than two children from contesting local body polls.
Perverse Incentives: The case highlights how stringent eligibility criteria can create extreme, unintended consequences for vulnerable members of a family.
Institutional Barriers: The accused initially attempted to give his son up for adoption to bypass the norm, but found hospital records were a roadblock.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Population Policy Impacts,” “Panchayati Raj Governance,” and “Ethics in Public Life.”

Detailed Analysis:

Premeditated Nature: Investigations revealed the murder was carefully planned, with the accused masking his face and leaving his phone behind to avoid tracking.
Accountability vs. Rights: While the rule was intended to ensure accountability among representatives, the editorial/report suggests it can lead to social distortions when political ambition intersects with legal barriers.

Editorial Analysis

FEBRUARY 07, 2026

GS-3 ENVIRONMENT Climate Governance Vacuum

Finance gap exceeds $2.4 Trillion. While COP processes multiply, real action stalls as national interests override global urgency.

GS-2 IR India-EU: Strategic Turning Point

A strategic alternative to the Donroe Doctrine. Deal aims to stabilize the order via semiconductors, AI, and maritime domain awareness.

GS-2 GOV / SOCIAL Two-Child Norm Perversion

Telangana tragedy highlights how Stringent Eligibility for local polls creates extreme, unintended social distortions for vulnerable families.

GOVERNANCE: GPS tracking and drone patrols must increase the “expected cost” of illegal coal transport in Northeast India.

ENVIRONMENT: UNFCCC remains the only universally legitimate forum despite theatrical delays; “one cannot hop off the planet.”

DIPLOMACY: Visas and professional recognition must be addressed to translate India-EU political alignment into societal depth.

SOCIAL: Population control rules shouldn’t hinder local democracy at the cost of basic ethics and fundamental rights.

GS-4
Perverse Incentives

Accountability vs. Humanity: The Telangana case is a stark example of how legal barriers to political ambition can lead to the collapse of moral reasoning. When policy design fails to account for human desperation, it risks institutionalizing perverse incentives that violate the sanctity of life.

Mapping:

Todays mapping notes focus on a significant Cartographic Shift in diplomacy, New Marine Species discovery, and the emergence of New Wildlife Points in the Deccan.

1. Cartographic Diplomacy: The India-US Trade Map

A major diplomatic event on February 7, 2026, involved a “message via maps.” The US Trade Representative (USTR) released a map alongside the India-US Interim Trade Agreement that has significant territorial implications.

Strategic Shift: The official US map depicts the entirety of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh (including PoK and Aksai Chin) as part of India.
Mapping Significance: This departs from the long-standing US practice of using dotted lines or annotations for disputed territories. It is being viewed as a “symbolic diplomatic signal” aligning with India’s 1994 Parliamentary Resolution.
Point for your Users: Locate Aksai Chin (Northeastern Ladakh) and PoK—emphasize that for the first time in a major US policy document, these are shown as undivided Indian territory.

2. Marine Geography: New ‘Bio-Warrior’ Species (West Bengal)

Researchers from the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) uncovered two new marine worm species (polychaetes) in the Bay of Bengal ecosystem.

Location: The mudflats and mangrove areas of the West Bengal coast.
Species Names:
- Namalycastis solenotognatha (Named for its “channeled jaw” structure).
- Nereis dhritiae (Named after ZSI’s first woman director, Dhriti Banerjee).
Ecological Mapping: These species are adapted to extreme, sulfide-rich, and polluted environments, acting as indicators of ecosystem health in the Sundarbans and surrounding mudflats.

3. Arachnid Discovery: Titanidiops Kolhapurensis

A new species of “Trapdoor Spider” has been documented in the Western Ghats region of Maharashtra.

Location: Kolhapur district, Maharashtra.
Mapping Context: Trapdoor spiders are unique because they live in burrows with “trapdoors” made of soil and silk. This discovery adds to the biodiversity mapping of the Northern Western Ghats, a region already famous for high endemism.

4. Strategic Infrastructure: The Shinku La and Sela Connections

While under construction, the progress reported on February 7 highlights the “Strategic Tunnel Map” of India.

Shinku La Tunnel: Connects Lahaul Valley (HP) with Zanskar Valley (Ladakh). Once finished, it will be the world’s highest tunnel at 15,800 ft.
Sela Tunnel: Provides all-weather connectivity to Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh, bypassing the high-altitude Sela Pass which often closes due to snow.

Summary Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Key Location
Territorial Map	Undivided J&K/Ladakh	India-US Trade Framework Map
Marine Discovery	Nereis dhritiae	West Bengal Mudflats
Deccan Discovery	Titanidiops Kolhapurensis	Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Strategic Border	Tawang Connectivity	Sela Tunnel, Arunachal

Mapping Brief

CARTOGRAPHIC DIPLOMACY & BIODIVERSITY

MARINE GEOGRAPHY

Bio-Warriors of the Mudflats

Two new marine worm species, including Nereis dhritiae, identified in West Bengal. Adapted to sulfide-rich polluted environments, they act as critical ecosystem indicators.

STRATEGIC BORDER GRID

High-Altitude Tunnels

Mapping the Shinku La (15,800ft) connecting Lahaul to Zanskar, and the Sela Tunnel providing vital 365-day all-weather access to Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh.

Bay of Bengal Ecosystem

The discovery of new polychaetes in the Sundarban Mudflats reinforces the importance of mapping mangroves as resilient biological frontiers.

TERRITORIAL Undivided J&K and Ladakh.

MARINE West Bengal Mangrove Mudflats.

STRATEGIC Sela Tunnel (Tawang access).

Atlas Strategy

Spatial foundation: The cartographic shift in US trade documentation signifies a major **Geopolitical Pivot**. Simultaneously, the documentation of trapdoor spiders in Kolhapur highlights the **unmapped micro-endemism** of the Deccan Plateau.

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 6 Feb 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-10 (The Changing World of Visual Arts)

This chapter of the textbook, “The Changing World of Visual Arts”, explores how the colonial period transformed the art and architecture of India through the introduction of new Western styles, techniques, and subjects.

1. New Forms of Imperial Art

In the eighteenth century, a stream of European artists came to India, bringing with them the techniques of oil painting and the concept of realism. This allowed them to create paintings that looked lifelike and real.

The Picturesque Landscape

This style of painting depicted India as a quaint, rugged, and untamed land that had yet to be “civilised” by British rule.
Thomas Daniell and his nephew William Daniell were the most famous landscape artists in this tradition.
Their work often contrasted images of traditional India (such as ruins) with symbols of British “modernisation,” like new buildings and improved transport.

Portraits of Authority

Portrait painting was a popular way for British officials and Indian royalty to project an image of wealth, status, and power.
Unlike the small-scale Indian miniature traditions, these portraits were typically life-size oil paintings.
European painters like Johann Zoffany were commissioned by Indian rulers, such as the Nawab of Awadh, to paint them in colonial settings to emphasize their association with British power.

History Painting

This genre dramatized various episodes of British military conquest.
These paintings served as imperial propaganda, portraying the British as invincible and all-conquering.
A famous example is the series of paintings documenting the defeat of Tipu Sultan of Mysore, which were displayed in London to celebrate British triumph.

2. What Happened to Court Artists?

The rise of British power significantly impacted traditional court painters, leading to a shift in patronage and style.

The Decline of Traditional Patronage: As local rulers lost power, artists in regional courts like Murshidabad began to adopt European techniques, such as the use of perspective and light.
Company Paintings: Many artists began working directly for East India Company officials.
They produced “Company Paintings”—images of Indian plants, animals, festivals, and occupations—which the British collected as souvenirs to document the “exotic” colony.

3. The New Popular Art

In the nineteenth century, a new form of popular art emerged in growing cities like Calcutta to cater to a wider audience.

Kalighat Paintings: At the Kalighat temple in Calcutta, traditional scroll painters (patuas) developed a new style using bold lines and vibrant colors.
Social Satire: By the late nineteenth century, these artists began mocking “babūs” (westernized Indians) who imitated British manners and lifestyle.
The Printing Press: The introduction of woodblock and lithographic printing allowed for the mass production of these images, making them accessible and affordable even to the poor.
Photography: Arriving in the mid-nineteenth century, photography was used by the British to document Indian architecture and the aftermath of the Revolt of 1857.

4. The Search for a National Art

As the nationalist movement gained momentum, artists sought a style that was authentically Indian rather than a copy of Western realism.

Raja Ravi Varma: He was among the first to combine Western oil painting techniques with Indian mythological and epic themes. His prints became immensely popular and were found in households across India.
Abanindranath Tagore: He rejected Ravi Varma’s Western realism as “materialistic”.
Along with his followers, he turned to Ajanta cave paintings and Mughal miniatures for inspiration, creating a spiritual and misty style known as the Bengal School of Art.

5. Architecture as Imperial Statement

Architecture in colonial India was used to physically express British cultural and political dominance.

Bombay’s Transformation: In the mid-nineteenth century, Bombay was rebuilt using European styles such as Gothic Revival, characterized by pointed arches and stone carvings.
Victoria Terminus: This railway station is a landmark of the Gothic style, designed to resemble a European cathedral.
Indo-Saracenic Style: Later, the British began incorporating Indian elements like domes and minarets into their buildings to present themselves as the legitimate successors to the Mughal emperors.

NCERT History • Class-8

Chapter – 10

The Changing World of Visual Arts

Nationalism and Popular Art

Kalighat Art: Traditional patuas in Calcutta created a bold, vibrant style that satirized “Babūs” who mimicked Western lifestyle.

Raja Ravi Varma: Combined Western realism and oil techniques with Indian mythology, making prints accessible to every household.

Bengal School: Abanindranath Tagore rejected Western realism for a spiritual, misty style inspired by Ajanta murals and Mughal miniatures.

Colonial Architecture: Buildings like Victoria Terminus (Gothic Revival) and the Indo-Saracenic style used stone and domes to physically assert British dominance.

Photography: Arrived in the mid-19th century to document architecture and the grim aftermath of the 1857 Revolt.

Realism

A style of painting that aimed to produce lifelike, accurate depictions of people and nature.

Gothic Revival

Architectural style with pointed arches and carvings, making buildings look like European cathedrals.

Lithography

A printing process that allowed the mass production of cheap prints for the general public.

Canvas of Power

The visual arts were a battleground of identity. From imperial propaganda paintings to the misty spirituality of the Bengal School, art was used to either justify colonial rule or to recover the soul of a nation seeking independence.

⚖️Indian Polity: Budget (Article 112-116)

In the Indian Constitution, the word “Budget” is never used. Instead, Article 112 refers to it as the Annual Financial Statement. This is the most crucial financial event in Parliament, as no money can be withdrawn from the Consolidated Fund of India without Parliamentary approval.

The Budget in Parliament (Articles 112–116)

The Budget is a statement of the estimated receipts and expenditure of the Government of India for a financial year (1st April to 31st March).

1. Constitutional Provisions

Article 112: The President shall, in respect of every financial year, cause to be laid before both Houses of Parliament the Annual Financial Statement.
Prior Recommendation: The Budget is presented to the Lok Sabha only with the prior recommendation of the President.
No Tax without Law: No tax shall be levied or collected except by authority of law (Art. 265).
Expenditure: The Budget must distinguish expenditure on revenue account from other expenditure.

2. Charged vs. Made Expenditure

The Budget contains two types of expenditure:

Expenditure Charged upon the Consolidated Fund: These are non-votable by Parliament (only discussion is allowed).
- Examples: Salaries of the President, Chairman/Speaker, Judges of the Supreme Court, and CAG; debt charges of the Government.
Expenditure Made from the Consolidated Fund: These are votable and presented in the form of Demands for Grants.

3. The 6 Stages of Budget Passage

To become a law, the Budget must go through these specific steps:

Presentation of Budget: Presented by the Finance Minister with the “Budget Speech.” (Earlier, the Railway Budget was separate, but since 2017, it is merged with the General Budget).
General Discussion: A few days after presentation, both Houses discuss the Budget as a whole. No motions are moved at this stage.
Scrutiny by Departmental Committees: Parliament adjourns for 3–4 weeks. During this gap, 24 departmental standing committees examine the demands for grants in detail.
Voting on Demands for Grants: The Lok Sabha votes on the demands. (Note: Rajya Sabha has no power to vote on demands). This is where Cut Motions can be moved:
- Policy Cut: Demand reduced to Re. 1 (Disapproval of policy).
- Economy Cut: Demand reduced by a specific amount.
- Token Cut: Demand reduced by Rs. 100 (To ventilate a specific grievance).
Passing of Appropriation Bill (Art. 114): This bill legalizes the withdrawal of money from the Consolidated Fund. No amendment can be made to this bill.
Passing of Finance Bill (Art. 117): This bill legalizes the income side of the budget (taxation proposals).

4. Special Grants (Articles 115 & 116)

Sometimes, the government needs money outside the regular budget cycle:

Vote on Account (Art. 116): Since the budget process takes time, the Lok Sabha grants 1/6th of the total estimate in advance to keep the government running for 2 months.
Supplementary Grant (Art. 115): When the amount authorized for a service is found to be insufficient for that year.
Excess Grant (Art. 115): When money has been spent in excess of the amount granted. It must be approved by the Public Accounts Committee before being brought to the Lok Sabha.
Vote of Credit (Art. 116): A “Blank Check” given for meeting an unexpected demand due to national emergency (e.g., war).

Summary Table

Term	Article	Purpose
Annual Financial Statement	112	The main Budget document.
Appropriation Bill	114	Authorization to withdraw money.
Finance Bill	117	Authorization to collect taxes.
Vote on Account	116	Advance money for 2 months.
Supplementary Grant	115	Additional money for existing service.

Annual Financial Statement • Art. 112

Public Finance & Budget

The Union Budget

Budget Passage Stages

1. Presentation: By Finance Minister in LS.
2. General Discussion: Both houses discuss overall figures.
3. Scrutiny: 24 Departmental Committees examine grants.

4. Voting: Done only in Lok Sabha.
5. Appropriation Bill (Art 114): Legalizes withdrawals.
6. Finance Bill (Art 117): Legalizes taxation.

Special Grants (Art 115-116)

Vote on Account: Advance 1/6th grant for 2 months.
Supplementary: Additional funds for current service.
Vote of Credit: Blank check for national emergencies.

Policy Cut

Demand reduced to Re. 1; represents total disapproval of the underlying government policy.

Economy Cut

Demand reduced by a specific amount to ensure fiscal prudence and economy in expenditure.

Token Cut

Demand reduced by Rs. 100; used to ventilate a specific grievance against the government.

The Legal
Shield

Under Article 265, no tax can be collected except by authority of law. Similarly, the Appropriation Bill acts as the exclusive key to the Consolidated Fund; without its passage, the government cannot legally spend a single rupee, ensuring complete Parliamentary control over the executive purse.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (6-February-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for February 6, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Intent and Outcome: Climate Concerns in Budget 2026

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Environment; Infrastructure).

Context: An analysis of the Union Budget 2026-27’s approach to climate ambitions and whether financial allocations match India’s declared goals.

Key Points:

CCUS Pilot Phase: The Budget proposed a five-year outlay of ₹20,000 crore for Carbon Capture, Utilisation, and Storage (CCUS), signaling a shift into a demonstration phase for these complex technologies.
Rooftop Solar Expansion: The PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana was scaled up to ₹22,000 crore, aiming to reduce land pressure and household energy costs via decentralised systems.
Nuclear and Solar Pumps: Zero basic customs duty on nuclear plant equipment was extended until 2035 to lower input costs, while PM-KUSUM (solar pumps) maintained its ₹5,000 crore allocation.
Green Hydrogen Gap: Despite high policy ambition, actual spending on green hydrogen remains modest, highlighting a persistent gap between intent and ground-level execution.

UPSC Relevance: Critical for “Climate Finance,” “Industrial Decarbonization,” and “Renewable Energy Policy.”

Detailed Analysis:

Export Competitiveness: With the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) imminent, decarbonizing sectors like steel and aluminum is now essential for trade survival, not just an environmental goal.
Private Capital Uncertainty: While legal changes now permit private participation in nuclear energy, it remains unclear if capital will flow into a sector burdened by high safety, liability, and national security concerns.
Mobilization Hurdles: The editorial argues that while the intent is clear, the budget remains cautious on actual allocations, leaving uncertainty about India’s ability to mobilize the private capital required for rapid decarbonization.

2. More, and Less: The Health-care Component of Budget 2026

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Social Sector/Health; Governance; Government Budgeting).

Context: A review of the health sector’s 10% nominal increase in the 2026 Budget and its failure to meet the long-standing target of 2.5% of GDP.

Key Points:

Budgetary Stagnation: The total health allocation is over ₹1.05 lakh crore, but this accounts for only 0.26% of GDP and 1.9% of total government expenditure.
Biopharma SHAKTI: A flagship ₹10,000 crore initiative designed to transform India into a global manufacturing hub for biologics and biosimilars over five years.
Geriatric Care Focus: The government aims to train 1.5 lakh care workers for the elderly, acknowledging India’s transition toward a “grey nation” with falling fertility levels.
Affordability Measures: Customs duties were waived for 17 cancer medicines and several rare disease treatments to lower financial burdens for patients and families.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Public Health Infrastructure,” “Pharmaceutical R&D,” and “Demographic Shifts.”

Detailed Analysis:

Commitment Gap: Public health activists criticize the government’s refusal to reach the 2.5% of GDP spending target by 2025, as originally committed in the National Health Policy of 2017.
NHM Funding Concerns: Despite high utilization rates, funding for the National Health Mission (NHM) has seen a decline, raising fears about the quality of primary healthcare.
Federal Imbalance: There are growing concerns that as the Centre reduces its share of health funding, fiscal devolution may lead to patchy health outcomes across different states rather than national improvement.

3. The Fading of India’s Environmental Jurisprudence

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Environment; Conservation) and GS Paper 2 (Judiciary).

Context: A legal scholarly critique of how India’s higher judiciary is reportedly aiding the “watering down” of environmental protections in the name of development.

Key Points:

Retrospective Clearances: The Supreme Court recently recalled its own 2025 judgment (Vanashakti vs Union of India) that had previously banned retrospective environmental clearances.
EIA Dilution: For non-coal mining projects, policy changes now allow Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) to be conducted without specific details about location and area.
Aravalli Definition: The Court departmented from its 2010 position by accepting a definition that protects only peaks above 100 metres, potentially exposing lower ridges to mining and exploitation.
Mangrove Loss: Judicial sanctions allowed the destruction of 158 mangroves in Raigarh, Maharashtra, for industrial projects based on the “promise” of compensatory afforestation.

UPSC Relevance: Critical for “Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA),” “Judicial Review,” and “Constitutional Accountability.”

Detailed Analysis:

Constitutional Implications: The editorial argues that current interpretations undermine the Right to a Healthy Environment under Article 21 and the state’s duty under Article 48A.
Procedural Unfairness: Large-scale infrastructure projects often bypass regulatory barriers with shortened hearings, effectively treating environmental compliance as a mere “checklist.”
Scientific Contradiction: Mature mangrove ecosystems, which act as natural flood control systems, take decades to develop and cannot be substituted by plantation drives in different locations.

4. More Money for Defence, Now Fix the Process

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Security; Defence technology; Indian Economy).

Context: An analysis of India’s first double-digit jump in defence expenditure in decades, reaching 2% of GDP.

Key Points:

Modernization Thrust: The Air Force (32% hike) and Army (30% hike) received significant funding for modernization, focusing on heavy vehicles and weapons.
Indigenization: 75% of the capital acquisition budget is reserved for domestic industries, supporting a 174% surge in domestic production since 2014-15.
Capital vs. Revenue: In a notable shift, capital expenditure (up 22%) has outpaced the revenue budget, reversing years of neglect.
Rising Exports: Defence exports reached ₹23,000 crore last year, showing strong growth from ₹1,000 crore in 2014.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Internal Security,” “Atmanirbhar Bharat in Defence,” and “Strategic Planning.”

Detailed Analysis:

The L-1 Bottleneck: The lowest-cost (L-1) rule continues to favor large industries over small-scale, high-tech innovators who are vital for a modern military.
Interminable Delays: Programs like Project 75 for submarines (approved in 1997) and the Rafale deal highlight a bureaucratic system where delivery takes decades.
Scatter-shot R&D: While DRDO funding has increased, India’s overall research budget remains low at 0.66% of GDP, and private sector R&D is almost entirely absent.
Growth Multiplier: The editorial argues the budget should be seen as a tool for economic growth, noting that indigenous shipbuilding has a 6.5 multiplier effect on employment.

5. Parley: Should the Governor’s Address be Scrapped?

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Polity; Role of the Governor; Centre-State Relations).

Context: A debate triggered by recent instances where Governors in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala either walked out or selectively read policy addresses prepared by state cabinets.

Key Points:

Article 176 Mandate: The Constitution requires the Governor to address the state legislature at the start of the first session of the year to outline the government’s agenda.
Symbolism vs. Function: Proponents of retaining the address argue it recognizes the Governor as an integral part of the legislature (Article 168) and reflects the Westminster model.
Constitutional Crisis: If a Governor declines to deliver the mandated address, it risks preventing the session from formally commencing.
Alternative Mechanisms: Article 175 already provides a way for Governors to send messages to the House regarding pending legislation without the ceremony of Article 176.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Federalism Disputes,” “Constitutional Functionaries,” and “Governance Stability.”

Detailed Analysis:

No Discretionary Power: In the Nabam Rebia case (2016), the Supreme Court clarified that the address is an executive function performed strictly on the “aid and advice” of the Cabinet.
Pleasure Doctrine Conflict: Unlike the President, who is subject to impeachment, the Governor holds office at the “pleasure of the President” (the Union), making them more answerable to New Delhi than the state legislature.
Systemic Reform: Experts suggest that instead of scrapping the address, the focus should be on reforming how Governors are appointed and removed to ensure their primary allegiance is to the Constitution, not the ruling party at the Centre.

Editorial Analysis

FEBRUARY 06, 2026

GS-2 HEALTH Public Healthcare Gap

Spending stagnant at 1.9% of Expenditure. Focus on Biopharma SHAKTI and training 1.5 lakh geriatric care workers for a “grey nation.”

GS-3 SECURITY Defence Modernization

Defence reaches 2% of GDP. Reservation of 75% Capital Budget for domestic industry, yet L-1 bottlenecks hinder high-tech innovators.

GS-3 ENV / JUD Jurisprudence Erosion

SC recalls ban on Retrospective Clearances. New definitions of Aravalli ridges potentially expose lower peaks to mining exploitation.

INFRASTRUCTURE: Indigenous shipbuilding has a 6.5 multiplier effect on employment, driving growth via indigenization.

FEDERALISM: Federal imbalance grows as the Centre reduces its share of health funding, risking patchy state outcomes.

CONSTITUTION: Governors hold office at the “pleasure of the President,” making them more answerable to the Union than states.

CONSERVATION: Mature mangroves take decades to develop and cannot be substituted by plantation drives in different locations.

GS-4
Environmental Duty

Public Trust Doctrine: Treating environmental compliance as a mere “checklist” for industrial development undermines the Right to a Healthy Environment. Judicial sanctions on ecosystem destruction violate the state’s ethical duty under Article 48A to preserve the ecological heritage for future generations.

Mapping:

Todays mapping notes focus on the Evolution of Cultural Geography, Strategic Aerospace Clusters, and Trans-Regional Conservation.

1. Cultural Geography: The “Sacred Nodes” Shift

As of February 6, 2026, a significant shift in India’s tourism geography was highlighted, moving beyond the traditional “Beach vs. Hills” binary toward experience-led heritage hubs.

Emerging Central Nodes: Trace the transition of towns like Ayodhya (UP), Ujjain (MP), Dwarka (Gujarat), and Puri (Odisha) into high-volume, year-round tourism economies.
Mapping the Shirdi–Pandharpur Belt: Locate this major pilgrimage corridor in Maharashtra, which is now functioning as a high-density “Experience-Led” zone.
Riverfront Development: Mark the extensive infrastructure upgrades along the ghats of Varanasi and Maheshwar, where the “sacred and the everyday” are being mapped as integrated economic spaces.

2. Strategic Aerospace Hub: Vadodara (Gujarat)

On February 6, 2026, a new Centre of Excellence (CoE) for Aerospace was inaugurated, marking Vadodara as a key point in India’s high-tech industrial map.

The Gati Shakti Hub: Located at the Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya (GSV), a Central University focused on transport and logistics.
Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF): The center is specifically mapping technologies for Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)-to-SAF conversion, a critical environmental-economic link.
Aerospace Ecosystem: Mark Vadodara as a primary node for the Airbus-GSV partnership, aimed at localizing the global aerospace supply chain.

3. Trans-Regional Conservation: Karimpuzha (Western Ghats)

While established earlier, the Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary was highlighted on this date for its role in the “Nilgiri Landscape” connectivity.

The Linkage: Forms a critical ecological bridge between Silent Valley (Kerala) and the Mukurthi National Park (Tamil Nadu).
River Geography: Named after the Karimpuzha River, a significant tributary of the Chaliyar River.
Tribal Heritage: Mapped as the traditional habitat of the Cholanaikan tribe, one of the most secluded hunter-gatherer groups in the Western Ghats.

4. International Mapping: The GCC Free Trade Hub

India and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) formally signed terms to resume Free Trade Agreement (FTA) talks in New Delhi on February 6, 2026.

The Six-Nation Block: For your map, identify the GCC members: Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, and Bahrain.
Strategic Choke Point: Highlight the Strait of Hormuz as the vital energy artery connecting India to this trade block.

Summary Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Key Location
New Heritage Node	Ayodhya Transformation	Uttar Pradesh
Aerospace CoE	Gati Shakti University	Vadodara, Gujarat
Western Ghats Link	Karimpuzha Sanctuary	Kerala (Nilgiri BR)
Trade Geography	GCC Nations	West Asia / Gulf Region

Mapping Brief

CULTURAL NODES & AEROSPACE CLUSTERS

STRATEGIC AEROSPACE HUB

Vadodara Center of Excellence

A primary node for the Airbus partnership at Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya. Mapping focuses on localizing aerospace supply chains and MSW-to-SAF aviation fuel tech.

TRANS-REGIONAL CONSERVATION

Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary

Forms an ecological bridge between Silent Valley (KL) and Mukurthi (TN). Habitat of the secluded Cholanaikan tribe in the Nilgiri landscape.

Riverine Heritage

Integrating the “sacred and everyday” through infrastructure mapping along the Varanasi and Maheshwar ghats on the Ganga and Narmada rivers.

HERITAGE NODE Ayodhya Transformation (UP).

AEROSPACE HUB Vadodara (Gati Shakti Univ).

CONSERVATION Karimpuzha Sanctuary (Kerala).

Atlas Strategy

Spatial foundation: Mapping 2026 highlights the convergence of Logistics (Gati Shakti) with Traditional Heritage (Sacred Nodes). Visualizing the connectivity between Silent Valley and Mukurthi is essential for analyzing Nilgiri biodiversity corridors.

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 5 Feb 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-9 (Women, Caste and Reform)

This chapter, “Women, Caste and Reform”, explores the social conditions of 19th and 20th-century India and the movements led by reformers to challenge deep-seated inequalities.

1. Social Conditions Two Hundred Years Ago

In the early nineteenth century, Indian society was marked by deep-seated gender and caste inequalities.

The Plight of Women

Early Marriage: Most children were married off at a very young age.
Polygamy: Both Hindu and Muslim men were permitted to marry more than one wife.
Practice of Sati: In some regions, widows were praised as “virtuous women” (sati) for burning themselves on their husbands’ funeral pyres.
Educational Barriers: Access to education was virtually non-existent for women; many believed that an educated woman would soon become a widow.
Property Rights: Women’s rights to own or inherit property were severely restricted.

Caste Hierarchies

Upper Castes: Brahmans and Kshatriyas occupied the highest status.
Middle Castes: Traders and moneylenders (Vaishyas) followed, then peasants and artisans like weavers and potters (Shudras).
Untouchability: At the lowest level were those whose work was considered “polluting”. They were barred from temples, shared water sources, and ponds used by upper castes.

2. The Dawn of Social Reform

The development of new forms of communication, such as the printing of cheap books, newspapers, and pamphlets, allowed social issues to be debated by a wider public for the first time.

Raja Rammohun Roy and the Brahmo Samaj

Brahmo Sabha: Founded by Rammohun Roy in Calcutta (later known as the Brahmo Samaj), this association aimed to remove unjust practices.
Abolition of Sati: Roy used his knowledge of Sanskrit and other languages to show that widow burning had no sanction in ancient sacred texts.
Legal Success: His efforts influenced British officials, leading to a formal ban on sati in 1829.

Widow Remarriage

Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar: He cited ancient texts to argue that widows should be allowed to remarry.
Legislation: In 1856, the British passed a law permitting widow remarriage based on his suggestions.
Spread of the Movement: Similar reform efforts were led by Veerasalingam Pantulu in the Madras Presidency and Swami Dayanand Saraswati, who founded the Arya Samaj in 1875.

3. The Expansion of Women’s Education

Reformers believed education was the primary tool to improve women’s lives, though they faced significant social opposition.

Opposition and Fear: Many feared that schools would take girls away from domestic duties or that traveling through public spaces would have a “corrupting” influence.
Home Education: Because of these fears, many women were taught at home by liberal relatives or, like Rashsundari Debi, taught themselves in secret.
Muslim Reformers: Mumtaz Ali reinterpreted Koran verses to argue for women’s education. The Begums of Bhopal and Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain founded influential schools for Muslim girls.

4. Women Reformers and Their Critical Voices

By the late nineteenth century, women began to actively write about and challenge their social position.

Tarabai Shinde: Published Stripurushtulna (A Comparison between Women and Men), which criticized the social differences and the double standards applied to the two genders.
Pandita Ramabai: A Sanskrit scholar who wrote about the oppression of upper-caste Hindu women and established a widows’ home in Poona to provide shelter and vocational training.
Political Pressure: By the early twentieth century, women formed groups to demand suffrage (the right to vote), better healthcare, and legal equality.

5. Caste Inequality and Movements for Equality

The nineteenth century also saw a rise in movements challenging the injustices of the caste system.

Jyotirao Phule and Gulamgiri

Attack on Aryan Superiority: Phule argued that Brahmans were “Aryan” foreigners who had subjugated the indigenous “low-caste” people.
Satyashodhak Samaj: This association, founded by Phule, propagated the ideal of caste equality.
International Link: In his book Gulamgiri (1873), Phule dedicated his work to the American movement to end slavery, linking the conditions of Indian “lower” castes to black slaves in America.

Twentieth-Century Leaders

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Born into a Mahar family, he experienced severe discrimination in school. He led three temple entry movements between 1927 and 1935 to expose the depth of caste prejudice.
E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar): Founded the Self Respect Movement in the south. He was a fierce critic of Hindu scriptures like the Codes of Manu, arguing they were used to establish Brahmanical and male dominance.

6. Key Reform Organizations

Brahmo Samaj (1830): Prohibited idolatry and sacrifice; drew on both Hindu and Christian ideals.
Young Bengal Movement: Led by Henry Derozio, it encouraged students to question all authority and campaign for freedom of expression.
Ramakrishna Mission: Named after Swami Vivekananda’s guru, it emphasized salvation through social service and selfless action.
Aligarh Movement: Led by Sayyid Ahmed Khan, it established the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 to provide modern education to Muslims.
Singh Sabha Movement: Worked to rid Sikhism of superstitions and caste distinctions while promoting modern education.

NCERT History • Class-8

Chapter – 9

Women, Caste and Reform

Voices of Resistance & Change

Women Reformers: Tarabai Shinde wrote Stripurushtulna to challenge double standards. Pandita Ramabai established shelters for oppressed upper-caste widows.

Jyotirao Phule: Founded Satyashodhak Samaj; wrote Gulamgiri (1873) linking the struggle of low-caste Indians to the end of slavery in America.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Led temple entry movements (1927-35) to expose deep-rooted prejudice and assert the rights of the Dalits.

Periyar: Launched the Self Respect Movement in the South, fiercely criticizing scriptures used to justify Brahmanical and male dominance.

Modern Education: Sayyid Ahmed Khan (Aligarh Movement) and the Singh Sabhas worked to modernize education for Muslims and Sikhs respectively.

Gulamgiri

1873 book by Phule meaning ‘Slavery’, dedicated to the American abolitionist movement.

Arya Samaj

Founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 to reform Hinduism and support education.

Temple Entry

Movements led by Ambedkar to challenge the exclusion of Dalits from sacred public spaces.

Dawn of Equality

Social reform was not just about changing laws, but about challenging the mind. By questioning ancient texts and utilizing the power of the press, reformers paved the way for a more inclusive and democratic modern India.

⚖️Indian Polity: Parliament – Legislative Procedure (Ordinary, Money, Financial Bills)

In the Indian Parliament, bills are classified into four types: Ordinary, Money, Financial, and Constitutional Amendment bills.

Here is the detailed breakdown of the first three, which govern the majority of legislative work.

Legislative Procedure: Types of Bills

1. Ordinary Bills (Articles 107 & 108)

These bills deal with any matter other than financial subjects.

Introduction: Can be introduced in either House (Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha).
Introduction By: Either a Minister (Government Bill) or a Private Member.
Passage: Must be passed by both Houses by a Simple Majority.
Deadlock & Joint Sitting (Art 108): If the two Houses disagree, the President can summon a Joint Sitting to resolve the deadlock.
Rajya Sabha Power: Can delay an ordinary bill for a maximum of 6 months.

2. Money Bills (Articles 110 & 109)

Article 110 defines a Money Bill as one that deals only with matters like taxation, borrowing of money, or the Consolidated Fund of India.

Certification: Only the Speaker of Lok Sabha can certify if a bill is a Money Bill. Their decision is final and cannot be questioned in court.
Introduction (Art 109): 1. Can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha.2. Requires the prior recommendation of the President.
Rajya Sabha’s Limited Role: 1. Rajya Sabha cannot reject or amend it; it can only make recommendations.2. It must return the bill within 14 days.3. If the Rajya Sabha does not act within 14 days, it is deemed to have been passed by both Houses.
President’s Assent: The President can give assent or withhold it, but cannot return it for reconsideration (because it was introduced with his prior permission).

3. Financial Bills (Article 117)

All Money Bills are Financial Bills, but not all Financial Bills are Money Bills. There are two types:

A. Financial Bill (I) – Article 117(1)

Contains matters of Article 110 plus other general legislative matters.
Similarity to Money Bill: Can only be introduced in Lok Sabha with the President’s recommendation.
Difference: Once introduced, it is treated like an Ordinary Bill (can be rejected/amended by Rajya Sabha and is subject to a Joint Sitting).

B. Financial Bill (II) – Article 117(3)

Contains provisions involving expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India but does not include any matter mentioned in Article 110.
Procedure: Treated exactly like an Ordinary Bill. It can be introduced in either House, and the President’s recommendation is not required for introduction (only required at the stage of consideration).

Comparison Table

Feature	Ordinary Bill	Money Bill (Art 110)	Financial Bill (I)
House of Origin	Either House	Lok Sabha only	Lok Sabha only
President’s Recommendation	Not Required	Required	Required
Rajya Sabha’s Power	Can Amend/Reject	Cannot Amend/Reject	Can Amend/Reject
Deadlock Solution	Joint Sitting	No Joint Sitting	Joint Sitting
Max Delay by RS	6 Months	14 Days	6 Months

4. The 5 Stages of a Bill

Every bill must pass through these stages in both Houses:

First Reading: Introduction and publication in the Gazette.
Second Reading: General discussion and clause-by-clause consideration (the most important stage).
Third Reading: Final voting on the bill (no amendments allowed here).
Bill in the Second House: The same three readings occur.
Assent of President: Becomes an “Act” after the President signs it.

Union Legislature • Art. 107-117

Legislative Procedure

Classification of Bills

Ordinary Bills (Art. 107)

Can be introduced in either House by a Minister or Private Member. Requires a Simple Majority in both houses.

Deadlock: If Houses disagree, the President can summon a Joint Sitting (Art. 108). RS can delay for max 6 months.

Money Bills (Art. 109)

Introduced only in Lok Sabha with the President’s prior recommendation. RS has no power to reject or amend.

14-Day Rule: Rajya Sabha must return the bill within 14 days, or it is deemed passed. Joint sittings are not allowed.

Financial Bill (I)

Introduced only in LS with recommendation; once introduced, treated as an Ordinary Bill (Art. 117(1)).

Financial Bill (II)

Involves Consolidated Fund expenditure. Treated entirely as an Ordinary Bill (Art. 117(3)).

Assent Power

President cannot return a Money Bill for reconsideration, as it is introduced with his prior consent.

The Legal
Formula

The constitutional relationship between financial legislation is simple: All Money Bills are Financial Bills, but not all Financial Bills are Money Bills. While Ordinary and Financial bills allow for Rajya Sabha’s full participation and Joint Sittings, the Money Bill remains the exclusive domain of the Lok Sabha and the Speaker.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (5-February-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for February 5, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Joining Hands: Internal Unity and Regional Discord in Manipur

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Important aspects of governance; Centre-State relations; Federalism) and GS Paper 3 (Internal Security).

Context: The revocation of President’s Rule in Manipur and the swearing-in of Yumnam Khemchand Singh as the 13th Chief Minister.

Key Points:

Revocation of President’s Rule: The order was revoked nearly a year after it was imposed to facilitate the return of a popular government and avoid a mandatory Constitutional Amendment Bill to extend it.
Coalition Leadership: The new government includes two Deputy CMs—Nemcha Kipgen (Kuki-Zo) and Losii Dikho (Naga People’s Front)—intended to signal inclusivity.
Ongoing Displacement: Only 9,000 of the estimated 60,000 displaced persons have returned home, reflecting a persistent trust deficit between communities.
Ethnic Friction: Despite internal BJP unity, major Kuki-Zo organizations (KZC and KIM) have warned their MLAs against joining the government, maintaining their demand for a “separate administration.”

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Security Challenges in Northeast India,” “Role of the Governor and President’s Rule,” and “Ethno-Political Conflicts.”

Detailed Analysis:

Transition of Leadership: A coalition of internal BJP critics successfully lobbied for a leadership change due to the “disastrous second tenure” of former CM N. Biren Singh.
Security vs. Reconciliation: While security forces have recovered many looted weapons, the execution of a Meitei man in a Kuki-Zo area in January highlights that radical groups still hold significant sway.

2. The Budget and the Imperative of Fiscal Consolidation

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Government Budgeting; Fiscal Policy).

Context: An analysis by C. Rangarajan and D.K. Srivastava on the structural shifts in expenditure and the slowing pace of fiscal consolidation in the 2026-27 Union Budget.

Key Points:

Revenue Restructuring: The share of revenue expenditure has fallen from 88% in 2014-15 to 77% in 2026-27, primarily driven by a 7% reduction in central subsidies.
Static Capex: While nominal capital expenditure (capex) is budgeted to grow by 11.5%, it remains nearly static as a percentage of GDP (3.1%) compared to the previous year.
Interest Burden: Interest payments now consume nearly 40% of revenue receipts, severely squeezing the fiscal space for primary developmental expenditures.
Finance Commission (FC16): The 16th Finance Commission has retained the 41% share for states but discontinued revenue deficit grants, leading to an overall reduction in transfers.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Macroeconomic Stability,” “Fiscal Federalism,” and “Resource Mobilization.”

Detailed Analysis:

Slow Consolidation: The annual reduction in the fiscal deficit-to-GDP ratio has dwindled to just 0.1% point for 2026-27 (BE).
Private Investment Risk: If the combined deficit of the Centre and States stays at 8%-9% of GDP, it will strongly crowd out investible resources for the private sector.

3. A Turning Point for Nuclear Deterrence

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of policies of developed countries; Bilateral relations).

Context: The expiration of the New START treaty on February 5, 2026, and the breakdown of trust within NATO under the Trump administration.

Key Points:

End of Arms Control: New START was the last remaining treaty limiting the nuclear arsenals of the U.S. and Russia; its expiry signals a return to Cold War-era stockpiling.
Modernization Race: China (adding 100 warheads annually since 2023), Russia, and the U.S. are all ambitiously modernizing their nuclear stockpiles.
Strategic Shift: The rupture between Europe and the U.S. over Greenland has irreparably broken the trust in the U.S. as the ultimate security guarantor.
Ukraine Lesson: The conflict has shown that a non-nuclear country can defend itself against a nuclear adversary if provided with robust conventional support.

UPSC Relevance: Critical for “Global Security Architecture,” “Nuclear Non-Proliferation,” and “U.S.-EU-Russia Geopolitics.”

Detailed Analysis:

European Autonomy: Europe is now forced to consider a new security architecture that may involve a British and French “nuclear umbrella” or an ad hoc “Coalition of the Willing.”
Taboo vs. Reality: While a nuclear weapon hasn’t been used since 1945, the development of “useable” tactical nukes is blurring the lines of deterrence.

4. UGC Regulations 2026: The Equity Debate

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Polity; Social Justice; Higher Education).

Context: The Supreme Court stayed the University Grants Commission (Promotion of Equity, 2026) regulations, citing ambiguity and potential misuse.

Key Points:

Definitional Friction: The controversy centers on the new definition of “caste-based discrimination,” which focuses exclusively on members of SC, ST, and OBC communities.
Perpetrator Presumption: Unreserved category members allege the rules unfairly presume they would always be the perpetrators of discrimination.
Lack of Safeguards: The 2026 rules removed earlier provisions intended to punish “false” or “motivated” complaints.
Judicial Ultimatum: The Court has stayed the 2026 rules while keeping the older 2012 regulations in force, framing questions on whether a separate definition for caste is constitutional.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Social Justice in Education,” “Fundamental Rights (Articles 14, 15),” and “Judicial Review.”

Detailed Analysis:

Substantive Equality: The government argues it has the right to recognize specific subsets of discrimination, as caste-based prejudice is asymmetric and more detrimental to underprivileged groups.

5. Data Point: The Persistence of Contractual Labor in Schools

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Issues relating to Education; Human Resources) and GS Paper 1 (Social Issues).

Context: Over 1.5 lakh schools in India have a teaching workforce that is at least 50% contractual or part-time.

Key Points:

Workforce Share: Teachers employed on a contractual basis (para-teachers, guest teachers) currently make up 16% (over 16 lakh) of India’s school workforce.
Wage Disparity: A World Bank report noted that contractual teachers often earn one-fourth or less than regular teachers despite doing similar work.
Northeast Concentration: Reliance on contractual staff is highest in northeastern states like Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, and Meghalaya.
Private Sector Heavy: Approximately 21% of private schools have workforces that are at least half contractual, the highest share among all management types.

UPSC Relevance: Key for “Challenges in Quality Education,” “Labor Law Violations,” and “Social Security for Workers.”

Detailed Analysis:

Misuse of Labels: The Punjab and Haryana High Court recently ruled that administrations cannot “misuse” contractual labels to deny permanent status to teachers serving over 10 years.
Persistent Protests: Recent demonstrations in Puducherry highlight a national struggle for job regularization that spans multiple states including UP, Bihar, and Jharkhand.

Editorial Analysis

FEBRUARY 05, 2026

GS-3 ECONOMY Structural Budget Shifts

Interest payments consume 40% of Revenue Receipts. Subsidies reduced by 7% as revenue expenditure share drops to 77%.

GS-2 IR Nuclear Arms Race

Expiry of New START treaty signals end of limits. China adding 100 Warheads Annually as deterrence shifts toward “usable” tactical nukes.

GS-2 EDU / LABOR Contractual Schooling

1.5 lakh schools have a 50% Contractual workforce. Para-teachers earn 1/4th the Salary of regular staff despite identical duties.

INTERNAL SECURITY: Only 9,000 of 60,000 displaced persons have returned to Manipur, highlighting a persistent trust deficit.

FISCAL: Discontinuation of Revenue Deficit grants by FC16 squeezes states; combined deficit risks crowding out private capital.

DEFENCE: Europe explores a security architecture involving a French/British “nuclear umbrella” as NATO-Trump trust breaks down.

JUSTICE: The High Court warns against the “misuse” of contractual labels to deny permanent status to long-serving educators.

GS-4
Justice & Policy

Substantive Equality vs. Ambiguity: The government argues for specific recognition of caste-based prejudice as asymmetric. However, policy must ensure that procedural fairness is not sacrificed, as any regulatory ambiguity invites the very bias it seeks to dismantle.

Mapping:

Todays mapping notes focus on Ecological Junctions, Scientific Infrastructure, and Sacred River Geography.

1. Geological Junction: Dholpur-Karauli Tiger Reserve (DKTR)

Mapping this reserve is critical as it sits at a unique intersection of two of India’s oldest mountain systems.

The Junction: Located at the geological meeting point of the Vindhyan and Aravalli hill ranges in Rajasthan.
Topographic Highlight: Characterized by the extensive and rugged ravines of the Chambal River basin.
Mapping Context: The reserve spans approximately 1,111 sq. km and serves as a vital corridor for tiger movement between Ranthambore and the northern habitats.

2. Scientific Mapping: Mega Telescopes in Ladakh

High-altitude infrastructure is a recurring theme for 2026. Two major “Mega Science” facilities are now being mapped in the Trans-Himalayas.

National Large Solar Telescope (NLST): Being established near Pangong Lake, Ladakh. Its location is strategically chosen for high-altitude solar research.
30-metre National Large Optical Telescope: A key point for global scientific collaboration, enhancing India’s standing in deep-space observation.

3. River Geography: The Phalgu River (Bihar)

On February 5, 2026, the unique “hidden” geography of the Phalgu River was highlighted for its cultural and hydrological significance.

Confluence & Course: Formed by the meeting of the Lilajan and Mohana rivers near Gaya. It eventually joins the Punpun River, a tributary of the Ganga.
“Gupta Ganga” (Hidden Ganga): It is mapped as a “hidden” river because it flows beneath a wide sandy bed, appearing dry on the surface for most of the year.
Mapping Point: The river is historically known as the Niranjana River, where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment.

4. Conservation Update: Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary (Gujarat)

A significant census update (February 2026) showed a 21% jump in bird population, making it a key ecological mapping point.

Census Data: Recorded over 5 lakh birds across 200 species.
Geographic Feature: Spans 120.82 sq. km; the population increase is attributed to the total ban on boating and reduced noise pollution over the last two years.

Summary Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Key Location
Mountain Junction	Vindhyan-Aravalli Link	Dholpur-Karauli, Rajasthan
Hidden River	Phalgu (Niranjana)	Gaya, Bihar
Solar Science Hub	Pangong Lake	Ladakh
Wetland Success	Nalsarovar Census	Gujarat

Mapping Brief

ECOLOGICAL JUNCTIONS & SACRED RIVERS

RIVER GEOGRAPHY

Phalgu: The Hidden “Gupta Ganga”

Formed by the confluence of Lilajan and Mohana near Gaya, the river (ancient Niranjana) flows beneath a sandy bed, remaining “hidden” surface-dry most of the year.

HIGH-ALTITUDE SCIENCE

Ladakh Mega-Telescopes

Strategically mapping the National Large Solar Telescope near Pangong Lake and the 30-metre Optical Telescope for advanced deep-space observation.

Tiger Corridors

Mapping the Ranthambore–DKTR axis is essential for understanding feline dispersal patterns across Rajasthan’s rugged ravine topography.

MOUNTAIN LINK Vindhyan-Aravalli (DKTR, RJ).

SACRED RIVER Phalgu / Niranjana (Gaya, BR).

SOLAR HUB Pangong Lake (Ladakh).

Atlas Strategy

Spatial foundation: The geological confluence in **Dholpur-Karauli** provides a rare study of two distinct tectonic histories. Simultaneously, the **Gupta Ganga** hydrological model of the Phalgu River serves as a prime example of sub-surface drainage in the Gangetic system.

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 4 Feb 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-8 (Civilising the ‘Native’, Educating the Nation)

This chapter, “Civilising the ‘Native’, Educating the Nation”, explores the evolution of education under British rule in India and the diverse reactions it sparked among both British officials and Indian thinkers.

1. The Orientalist Vision of Education

In 1783, William Jones arrived in Calcutta as a junior judge of the Supreme Court. As a linguist, he began studying Sanskrit, grammar, and poetry with local pandits.

The Goals of Orientalism

Respect for Tradition: Scholars like Jones and Henry Thomas Colebrooke shared a deep respect for ancient cultures of both India and the West.
Rediscovering the Past: They believed Indian civilization had reached its glory in the ancient past but had since declined.
Guardians of Culture: By discovering and translating sacred and legal texts, they believed the British could help Indians rediscover their heritage while the British became “masters” and “guardians” of that culture.
Winning Hearts: Officials argued that the British should teach what the natives valued and were familiar with (Sanskrit and Persian literature) to win the respect of their subjects.

Key Institutions Established

Calcutta Madrasa (1781): Set up to promote the study of Arabic, Persian, and Islamic law.
Hindu College, Benaras (1791): Established to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts useful for administration.
Asiatic Society of Bengal: Founded by William Jones to conduct research and publish the journal Asiatick Researches.

2. The Critique of Orientalism

By the early 19th century, many British officials began to attack the Orientalist vision, labeling it unscientific and full of “grave errors”.

James Mill’s Views

Practicality over Pleasure: Mill argued the British should not teach what the natives wanted just to please them.
Western Advancement: He believed the aim of education should be to teach “useful and practical” things, specifically the scientific and technical advances of the West.

Thomas Babington Macaulay’s Influence

India as Uncivilised: Macaulay saw India as an uncivilized country that needed to be civilised.
The “Single Shelf” Claim: He famously declared that “a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia”.
The English Education Act of 1835: This act made English the medium of instruction for higher education and stopped the promotion of Oriental institutions.

3. Wood’s Despatch (1854)

This educational despatch, issued by Charles Wood, President of the Board of Control, outlined the formal educational policy for India.

Commercial Benefits: It argued that European learning would help Indians recognize the advantages of trade and commerce and create a demand for British goods.
Moral and Administrative Gains: It claimed Western literature would make Indians truthful and honest, providing a reliable supply of civil servants for the Company.
Institutional Changes: This led to the creation of government education departments and the establishment of universities in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay in 1857.

4. The Report of William Adam on Pathshalas

In the 1830s, the Company asked William Adam, a Scottish missionary, to report on vernacular schools in Bengal and Bihar.

Widespread Education: Adam found over 1 lakh pathshalas teaching over 20 lakh children.
Flexibility: The system was highly adapted to local needs.
- There were no fixed fees, printed books, separate buildings, or blackboards.
- Fees depended on parental income; the rich paid more.
- Classes were not held during harvest time, allowing children of peasant families to study.

The Introduction of “New Rules” (Post-1854)

The Company appointed government pandits to oversee schools and improve teaching standards.
Gurus were forced to use textbooks, follow a regular timetable, and submit reports.
The Impact: The new requirement for regular attendance, even during harvests, made it difficult for poor children to remain in school.

5. National Visions of Education: Gandhi and Tagore

Many Indians felt that Western education was a means of colonial enslavement and proposed alternatives.

Mahatma Gandhi: “English Education Has Enslaved Us”

Inferiority Complex: Gandhi argued that colonial education destroyed Indian pride and made Indians see Western civilization as superior.
Dignity and Self-Respect: He wanted an education that helped Indians recover their dignity and urged students to leave British-run institutions.
Practical Handicrafts: Gandhi believed that literacy alone was not education. He argued children should learn a craft and work with their hands to develop their mind and soul.

Rabindranath Tagore: Santiniketan

The “Abode of Peace”: Established in 1901, 100 kilometers from Calcutta in a rural setting.
Creative Freedom: Tagore hated the “prison-like” atmosphere of rigid British schools. He believed childhood should be a time of self-learning in a natural environment.
Synthesis of East and West: While Gandhi was critical of modern technology, Tagore wanted to combine the best of Indian tradition with modern Western science and technology.

NCERT History • Class-8

Chapter – 8

Civilising the ‘Native’, Educating the Nation

Colonial & National Paths

English Education Act (1835): Made English the medium of instruction for higher education, focusing on “useful and practical” Western knowledge.

Wood’s Despatch (1854): Formalized policy to create a reliable supply of civil servants and increase demand for British goods via Western learning.

Pathshala Reform: William Adam reported on flexible local schools; post-1854, the British imposed rigid rules, textbooks, and timetables.

Mahatma Gandhi: Opposed English education as “enslaving,” arguing it created an inferiority complex; advocated learning crafts and handicrafts.

Rabindranath Tagore: Founded Santiniketan (1901) as an “Abode of Peace,” seeking to combine creative freedom with modern science.

Orientalists

Scholars with deep respect for the ancient cultures of Asia, both sacred and legal.

Wood’s Despatch

The 1854 document that outlined the formal administrative benefits of European education.

Santiniketan

A school in a natural setting where Tagore promoted self-learning and artistic expression.

The Mind’s Battle

Education in colonial India was never just about literacy; it was a philosophical conflict. While the British sought efficient clerks, Indian thinkers sought an education that could restore dignity, self-respect, and creative freedom.

⚖️Indian Polity: Parliament – Presiding Officers (Speaker, Chairman) & Sessions

The Presiding Officers are the guardians of the dignity and privileges of the Houses. Without them, the Parliament cannot function as a deliberative body.

1. The Speaker of Lok Sabha (Articles 93–97)

The Speaker is the head of the Lok Sabha and its representative.

Election: Elected by the Lok Sabha from amongst its members. The date of the election of the Speaker is fixed by the President.
Tenure: Remains in office during the life of the Lok Sabha. However, they vacate office if they cease to be a member of the House or resign (by writing to the Deputy Speaker).
Special Powers:
1. Money Bill: The Speaker’s decision on whether a bill is a Money Bill is final and cannot be challenged in court.
2. Joint Sitting: The Speaker presides over a joint sitting of both Houses.
3. Casting Vote: The Speaker does not vote in the first instance but exercises a casting vote in the case of a tie.
4. Tenth Schedule: Decides on disqualification under the Anti-Defection Law.

Note: The Speaker Pro Tem is a temporary speaker appointed by the President (usually the senior-most member) to administer oaths to new members and conduct the election of the permanent Speaker.

2. The Chairman of Rajya Sabha (Articles 89–92)

Who is it? The Vice-President of India is the Ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
Key Difference: Unlike the Speaker (who is a member of the House), the Chairman is not a member of the Rajya Sabha.
Removal: The Chairman can only be removed from their office if they are removed from the office of the Vice-President.
Powers: Similar to the Speaker regarding the conduct of business, but the Chairman cannot preside over a joint sitting or decide if a bill is a Money Bill.

3. Sessions of Parliament (Article 85)

The President has the power to summon each House of Parliament to meet.

The 6-Month Rule: The maximum gap between two sessions of Parliament cannot be more than 6 months. Therefore, Parliament must meet at least twice a year.
The Three Sessions: India traditionally has three sessions:
1. Budget Session: (February to May) – The longest session.
2. Monsoon Session: (July to September).
3. Winter Session: (November to December) – The shortest session.

4. Key Terminology

Adjournment: Terminates a sitting of the House for a few hours, days, or weeks.
Adjournment Sine Die: Terminates a sitting for an indefinite period (without fixing a date for reassembly).
Prorogation: Not only terminates a sitting but also the session of the House. Done by the President.
Dissolution: Ends the very life of the House (only for Lok Sabha). Done by the President.
Quorum (Article 100): The minimum number of members required to be present to conduct business. It is 1/10th of the total membership of each House (including the presiding officer).

Detailed Summary Table

Feature	Speaker (Lok Sabha)	Chairman (Rajya Sabha)
Member of House?	Yes	No (Vice-President)
Election Date	Fixed by President	N/A (Ex-officio)
Resigns to	Deputy Speaker	President
Joint Sitting	Presides over it	Does not preside
Money Bill	Decides on its nature	No power

Legislative Conduct • Art. 85-100

Parliamentary Procedure

Presiding Officers & Sessions

RS Chairman (Art. 89)

The Vice-President is the Ex-officio Chairman. Unlike the Speaker, they are not a member of the House.

Sessions of Parliament (Art. 85)

6-Month Rule: Max gap between sessions cannot exceed 6 months. Typically includes Budget, Monsoon, and Winter sessions.

Prorogation vs Dissolution: The President prorogues sessions and dissolves the Lok Sabha; adjournment is done by the Presiding Officer.

Money Bills

The Speaker’s decision on whether a bill is a Money Bill is final and unchallengeable.

Casting Vote

Presiding officers only vote in case of a tie (not in the first instance).

Anti-Defection

The Speaker/Chairman decides on disqualification under the 10th Schedule.

The “Standby”
Officer

The Speaker Pro Tem is a temporary post appointed by the President to administer oaths and oversee the election of a permanent Speaker. Regarding removal, the Speaker resigns to the Deputy Speaker, while the Chairman only leaves office upon removal as Vice-President.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (4-February-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for February 4, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. India-U.S. Trade Deal: Relief with Unanswered Questions

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Bilateral Relations; Effect of Policies of Developed Countries on India’s Interests).

Context: Analysis of the recently announced trade deal between India and the United States, which brings significant tariff relief but leaves several strategic questions open.

Key Points:

Tariff Reduction: The U.S. has agreed to slash “reciprocal” tariffs on Indian imports from 50% to 18% and entirely remove the 25% “penalty” tariffs previously imposed due to India’s Russian oil imports.
Sensitive Sector Protection: Commerce Minister Piyush Goyal confirmed that the deal excludes sensitive agricultural items and dairy, ensuring domestic farmers remain protected.
Labour-Intensive Gains: The reduction is expected to provide a major boost to sectors like textiles, apparel, leather, footwear, gems and jewellery, and engineering goods.
Commitment to “Buy American”: President Trump asserted that PM Modi committed to purchasing over $500 billion worth of U.S. energy, technology, and agricultural products, though New Delhi has not yet confirmed the specific timeline or details.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for questions on “India-U.S. Strategic Ties,” “Global Trade Dynamics,” and “Energy Diplomacy.”

Detailed Analysis:

The Russian Oil Conundrum: Trump claimed PM Modi agreed to stop buying Russian oil in favor of U.S. and Venezuelan sources; if true, this marks a major geopolitical realignment that could shadow India-Russia relations.
Market and Rupee Impact: News of the deal immediately bolstered the Indian stock markets and led to the rupee becoming the best-performing Asian currency on the day of the announcement, gaining 1.28%.

2. Industrial Shift: Electrons Over Molecules

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Infrastructure; Energy Transition; Industrial Policy).

Context: An analysis by Shrikant Madhav Vaidya on why India’s next industrial revolution must prioritize electrification (electrons) over traditional fuel combustion (molecules).

Key Points:

Efficiency Dividend: Electric motors convert over 90% of input energy into useful work, whereas internal combustion engines typically convert less than 35%.
Global Lead: China currently draws nearly half of its industrial energy from electricity (electrons), while India lags significantly at approximately one-quarter.
Green Share Gap: Green electrons (renewable grid power) account for only 7%-8% of India’s final industrial energy, compared to much higher shares in China and the EU.
CBAM Risk: Without rapid electrification of industrial processes (especially in steel and cement), Indian exports face severe penalties under the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM).

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Energy Security,” “Sustainable Manufacturing,” and “Climate Change Mitigation Strategy.”

Detailed Analysis:

Strategic Imperative: Shifting to domestic electricity reduces exposure to global oil and gas price shocks, thereby enhancing national economic sovereignty.
Policy Roadmap: The author advocates for a National Mission on Industrial Electrification, targeting the electrification of MSME coal boilers and the expansion of electric-arc-furnace (EAF) steel production.

3. AI Investment Cycle: The Shift to Applications

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Science & Technology; IT & Computers; Economy).

Context: The Artificial Intelligence industry is moving from an infrastructure-heavy phase (chips and data centers) to a focus on profitable, real-world applications.

Key Points:

Profitability Pressure: Despite spending $320 billion on infrastructure in 2025, foundation model businesses (like OpenAI) continue to face thin margins due to high inference costs.
Application Growth: Businesses spent $19 billion on AI applications in 2025, which now accounts for more than half of all generative AI spending.
Departmental AI: Real value is emerging in specific segments; for example, AI coding tools alone reached a $4 billion market size in 2025.
Vertical Integration: Solutions deeply integrated into specific workflows (healthcare, law, finance) are now considered the most “investment-worthy” AI businesses.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Industrial Revolution 4.0,” “Digital Economy,” and “Technology Governance.”

Detailed Analysis:

Circular Financing: The editorial warns that current revenue figures (e.g., Microsoft’s Azure AI) are often obscured by circular financing where infrastructure providers fund the very models that pay for their compute services.
Regulatory Balance: Policymakers are cautioned not to stifle the “application layer” with strict regulations prematurely, but must remain vigilant regarding acqui-hires that kill potential rivals.

4. Status of the Death Penalty in India (2016-2025)

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Judiciary; Fundamental Rights; Important Aspects of Governance).

Context: A report by the Square Circle Clinic (NALSAR) reveals that the Supreme Court has not confirmed a single death penalty in the last three years.

Key Points:

Judicial Scepticism: While lower courts sentenced 128 individuals to death in 2025 alone, the Supreme Court’s stance has become increasingly restrictive.
Wrongful Conviction Concerns: The top court acquitted 10 death row prisoners in 2025—the highest number in a decade—highlighting serious errors at the trial court level.
Procedural Violations: Nearly 95% of death sentences in 2025 were imposed without complying with SC guidelines (e.g., psychological evaluations and mitigation hearings).
Life without Remission: There is a growing trend of using life imprisonment without remission as a definitive alternative to capital punishment.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Judicial Reforms,” “Human Rights,” and the “Doctrine of Rarest of Rare.”

Detailed Analysis:

Appellate Inversion: Of the 37 death penalty cases confirmed by High Courts that reached the SC recently, 15 resulted in acquittal and 14 were commuted, with zero affirmed.
Languishing on Death Row: The report notes that India had 574 prisoners on death row as of late 2025, with many spending over five years in prison before eventual acquittal.

5. Fiscal Federalism: The 16th Finance Commission’s Dilemma

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Federalism; Constitutional Bodies; Centre-State Relations).

Context: Analysis of how the 16th Finance Commission (FC) vertical devolution recommendations prioritize the Centre’s fiscal space over State pressures.

Key Points:

Devolution Stagnation: The 16th FC maintained the vertical devolution rate at 41%, despite 18 States demanding an increase to 50%.
Shrinking Divisible Pool: The share of the divisible pool in the Centre’s Gross Tax Revenue has fallen below 90% for six consecutive years due to the unbridled rise in cesses and surcharges.
Non-Shareable Revenue: Cesses and surcharges (which the Centre does not share with States) rose from 1.1% of GDP in 2011-12 to 2.2% of GDP in 2023-24.
State Consensus Ignored: The Commission reportedly aligned with the Centre’s priorities even though there was a rare consensus among diverse States regarding fiscal stress.

UPSC Relevance: Key for “Fiscal Federalism,” “Resource Mobilization,” and “Centre-State Financial Friction.”

Detailed Analysis:

Tax Strategy Impact: By favoring cesses (like the petrol/diesel cess) over standard taxes, the Centre effectively “shrinks the shareable revenue” available to the States.
Vertical Imbalance: The report argues that the current regime’s reliance on non-shareable instruments renders the Finance Commission’s percentage-based recommendations less effective for State financial health.

Editorial Analysis

FEBRUARY 04, 2026

GS-3 ENERGY & IND Industrial Electrification

Electric motors yield 90% Efficiency vs 35% in combustion. Shift to green “electrons” vital to bypass EU’s CBAM penalties.

GS-3 TECHNOLOGY AI: The Application Layer

Shift from chips to software; Vertical AI in law and health becomes investment focus. Warnings on circular financing in foundation models.

GS-2 FED The Devolution Dilemma

Cesses rose to 2.2% of GDP. 16th Finance Commission maintains 41% rate, favoring the Centre’s fiscal space over State consensus.

STRATEGY: The “Russian Oil Conundrum” marks a major geopolitical realignment if India pivots exclusively to U.S./Venezuelan sources.

ECONOMY: Rupee became the best-performing Asian currency, gaining 1.28% immediately following the trade announcement.

MANUFACTURING: India lags at 25% industrial electrification; a National Mission is required to secure national economic sovereignty.

RIGHTS: India has 574 prisoners on death row; the SC’s restrictiveness creates a “Life without Remission” definitive alternative.

GS-4
Rule of Law

Justice and Procedural Integrity: When 95% of death sentences are imposed without psychological evaluation or mitigation hearings, it constitutes a Moral Failure of the trial system. The SC’s restictive stance serves as an essential ethical buffer against wrongful irrevocable punishment.

Mapping:

Todays mapping notes focus on Critical Mineral Infrastructure, Disaster Management Mapping, and Strategic International Relations.

1. Strategic Rare Earth Corridors (Geographic Expansion)

A major development on this date is the detailed planning of Dedicated Rare Earth Corridors to secure supply chains for high-tech manufacturing.

Mapping the Coastal Belt: These corridors are focused along the Eastern and Southern coastal belts, specifically covering:
- Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
Mineral Hubs: Trace the 13.15 million tonnes of Monazite reserves found in beach sands across these states.
Hard Rock Deposits: Mark specific inland sites in Rajasthan and Gujarat where 1.29 million tonnes of rare-earth oxide resources have been identified.

2. Disaster Management: Landslide Susceptibility Map (Meghalaya)

On February 4, 2026, a new AI-based mapping project for the North-East was highlighted for its precision in identifying high-risk zones.

Vulnerability Mapping:
- Very High Risk: Approximately 7% of Meghalaya falls in this category.
- East Khasi Hills: Identified as the most vulnerable district, with 730 km² classified under the “very high risk” zone.
- Other Districts to Plot: Ri Bhoi, West Khasi Hills, and the Jaintia Hills.

3. International Mapping: Seychelles and Tanzania

Strategic maritime and diplomatic mapping is a core part of the IAS syllabus.

Seychelles (State Visit):
- Mapping Context: An archipelagic state in the Indian Ocean consisting of 115 islands.
- Strategic Importance: Vital for India’s “Blue Economy” and maritime security in the Western Indian Ocean.
Tanzania (Zanzibar):
- Mapping Context: India recently strengthened ties in Zanzibar through the 4th Joint Defence Cooperation Committee.
- Key Landmarks: Plot its borders with Lake Victoria (largest in Africa) and Lake Tanganyika (deepest in Africa).

4. Environment: Afforestation Conflict in Arunachal

Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project (LHE): Concerns were raised regarding compensatory afforestation failures in Arunachal Pradesh.
Mapping Point: Locate the Subansiri River (a major tributary of the Brahmaputra) on the border of Arunachal and Assam.

Summary Mapping Table

Category	Mapping Highlight	Key Location
Mineral Corridor	Rare Earth Belt	Odisha to Kerala Coast
High Risk Zone	East Khasi Hills	Meghalaya (Landslide Map)
Maritime Partner	Seychelles	Western Indian Ocean
River Project	Subansiri LHE	Arunachal-Assam Border

Mapping Brief

CRITICAL MINERALS & STRATEGIC GEOGRAPHY

STRATEGIC DIPLOMACY

Western Indian Ocean Outreach

India strengthens maritime security ties with the Seychelles (115-island archipelago) and Tanzania (Zanzibar), bordering Lake Victoria and Tanganyika.

HYDRO-ENVIRONMENTAL

Subansiri Lower Project (LHE)

Located on the Arunachal-Assam Border, this project on the Subansiri River (Brahmaputra tributary) faces scrutiny over compensatory afforestation.

Critical Supply Chains

Dedicated corridors are being mapped along the Eastern Coastal Belt to secure 13.15 million tonnes of rare-earth resources vital for high-tech manufacturing.

MINERAL BELT Odisha to Kerala Coastline.

HIGH RISK ZONE East Khasi Hills (Meghalaya).

MARITIME Seychelles (Western Indian Ocean).

Atlas Strategy

Spatial foundation: Understanding the dual concentration of beach sand monazite and hard-rock rare earth oxides is vital for India’s high-tech sovereignty. Integrate the landslide vulnerability of the East Khasi Hills into the broader Himalayan-NE risk matrix for GS-III.

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 3 Feb 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-7 (Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners)

This chapter “Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners” details the history of Indian crafts and industries during British rule, specifically focusing on the textile and iron and steel industries. Both were essential to the global Industrial Revolution, with cotton production making Britain a premier industrial power and its later growth in iron and steel earning it the title “workshop of the world”.

1. Indian Textiles and the Global Market

Around 1750, before the British conquest of Bengal, India was the world’s largest producer of cotton textiles. They were renowned for fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship.

The History Behind Textile Names

Muslin: European traders first saw fine cotton from India carried by Arab merchants in Mosul (modern-day Iraq), so they named all finely woven textiles “muslin”.
Calico: When the Portuguese landed in Calicut (Kerala) for spices, they took back cotton textiles which became known as “calico”.
Chintz: Derived from the Hindi word chhint, it refers to cloth with small, colorful floral designs. By the 1680s, there was a massive craze for this in England and Europe due to its texture and relative cheapness.
Bandanna: Derived from the Hindi word bandhna (tying), it refers to brightly colored and printed scarves for the neck or head produced through tying and dyeing.

Competition and the Calico Act

By the early 18th century, the popularity of Indian textiles in England led wool and silk makers to protest. This resulted in the Calico Act of 1720, which banned the use of printed cotton chintz in England. To compete with Indian imports, British producers began imitating Indian designs and sought technological innovations like the spinning jenny (1764) and the steam engine (1786).

Spinning Jenny (1764): Invented by John Kaye, it allowed a single worker to operate several spindles.
Steam Engine (1786): Richard Arkwright’s invention revolutionized weaving, allowing cloth to be woven in immense quantities and very cheaply.

2. The Weaving Communities

Weaving skills were passed down through generations within specific communities.

Famous Communities: Included the Tanti weavers of Bengal, Julahas (or Momin) of North India, and the Sale, Kaikollar, and Devangs of South India.
Division of Labor:
- Spinning: Primarily a woman’s task using the charkha and takli.
- Weaving: Mostly done by men.
- Dyeing: Done by specialists known as Rangrez.
- Block Printing: Done by specialists called Chhipigars.

3. The Decline of Indian Textiles

The rise of British industrial production devastated Indian weavers in several ways:

Market Loss: English-made cotton textiles ousted Indian goods from traditional markets in Africa, America, and Europe by the early 19th century.
High Tariffs: Heavy duties were imposed on Indian textiles imported into Britain.
Unemployment: Thousands of weavers, especially in Bengal, lost their livelihood as European companies stopped buying their goods.
Flooding of Local Markets: By the 1880s, two-thirds of all cotton clothes worn by Indians were manufactured in Britain.
Nationalism and Khadi: Handloom weaving survived partly because machines could not produce intricate borders or traditional patterns. Mahatma Gandhi later urged people to boycott imported textiles and use Khadi, making the charkha a symbol of Indian nationalism.

4. The Sword of Tipu Sultan and Wootz Steel

India had a long tradition of high-quality metallurgy, famously exemplified by the sword of Tipu Sultan.

Wootz Steel: Tipu’s sword was made of Wootz steel, a high-carbon steel produced across South India. It featured a sharp edge with a “flowing water” pattern created by small carbon crystals. European scientists, including Michael Faraday, were fascinated by its properties.
Water Pattern: The steel produced a flowing water pattern from very small carbon crystals embedded in the iron.
Smelting Process: Iron was mixed with charcoal in small clay pots with intricate temperature control.
Decline: This specialized craft died out after the British conquest, as imports from England displaced local production.

Decline of Local Smelting

The traditional iron smelting craft declined in the 19th century due to:

Forest Laws: The colonial government prevented people from entering reserved forests, making it impossible for smelters to find wood for charcoal or iron ore.
High Taxes: In areas where forest access was granted, the government charged a very high tax for every furnace used, reducing income.
Imported Iron: By the late 19th century, Indian ironsmiths began using cheap imported iron from Britain to make utensils, lowering the demand for locally produced iron.

5. The Rise of Modern Factories: TISCO

The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) marked the beginning of modern heavy industry in India.

Discovery of Ore: In 1904, Charles Weld and Dorabji Tata found one of the world’s finest iron ore deposits in the Rajhara Hills with the help of the Agaria community.
Jamshedpur: A site was chosen on the banks of the river Subarnarekha where water was available near the ore deposits.
The First World War: TISCO expanded rapidly during WWI because:
1. Steel imports from Britain declined as they were needed for the war in Europe.
2. The Indian Railways turned to TISCO for rails.
3. TISCO produced shells and carriage wheels for the war.
Success: By 1919, the colonial government was buying 90% of TISCO’s steel, making it the biggest steel industry in the British empire.

NCERT History • Class-8

Chapter – 7

Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners

Decline & Industrial Rise

The Machine Age: Inventions like the Spinning Jenny (1764) and Steam Engine (1786) allowed Britain to mass-produce cheap cloth, devastating Indian weavers.

Smelting Crisis: Colonial Forest Laws restricted access to wood for charcoal, causing traditional iron smelting crafts to die out by the late 19th century.

TISCO: Founded by Dorabji Tata in 1912 (Jamshedpur) after the Agaria community helped find iron ore in the Rajhara Hills.

WWI Impact: TISCO grew rapidly during the Great War as steel imports from Britain fell, making it the largest steel industry in the British Empire.

Resistance: Handloom weaving survived through intricate designs, and later became a symbol of nationalism via Khadi.

Chintz

From the Hindi word ‘Chhint’; colorful floral cloth that created a craze in Europe.

Agaria

A community of iron smelters who led Tata to the world’s finest iron ore deposits.

Bandanna

Brightly printed head-scarves produced through the ‘Bandhna’ (tie-dye) method.

Workshop of the World

India’s transition from an artisan textile hub to a modern industrial powerhouse was a story of survival. Despite colonial trade barriers, the rise of steel and the revival of handlooms proved the resilience of Indian craftsmanship.

📂

Class-8 History Chapter-7 PDF

Complete Study Notes: Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners

Download Now

⚖️Indian Polity: Duration and Membership of Parliament

The Parliament’s continuity and the integrity of its members are governed by Articles 83, 84, and 102. These provisions ensure that the legislature remains functional and accountable.

1. Duration of the Houses (Article 83)

Rajya Sabha (The Permanent House)

It is not subject to dissolution.
It is a continuing chamber, but one-third of its members retire every second year.
Member Term: The Constitution does not fix the term; the Representation of the People Act (1951) fixed it at 6 years.

Lok Sabha (The Temporary House)

Normal term is 5 years from the date of its first meeting.
It can be dissolved by the President at any time before 5 years.
Emergency Extension: During a National Emergency, Parliament can extend the Lok Sabha’s life by law for one year at a time (for any length of time). However, this extension cannot continue beyond 6 months after the Emergency has ceased.

2. Qualification for Membership (Article 84)

To be chosen as a Member of Parliament (MP), a person must:

Be a citizen of India.
Oath: Make and subscribe an oath before a person authorized by the Election Commission.
Age:
- Not less than 30 years for Rajya Sabha.
- Not less than 25 years for Lok Sabha.
Possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by Parliament (e.g., must be a registered elector).

3. Disqualification of Members (Article 102)

This is a high-priority topic for competitive exams. A person is disqualified from being an MP if:

Office of Profit: They hold any office of profit under the Government of India or a State Government (other than a Minister).
Unsound Mind: If declared so by a competent court.
Insolvent: If they are an undischarged insolvent (bankrupt).
Citizenship: If they are not a citizen of India or have voluntarily acquired foreign citizenship.
Parliamentary Law: If they are disqualified under any law made by Parliament (e.g., RPA 1951).

Who Decides? On questions of disqualification under Article 102, the President’s decision is final. However, the President must obtain the opinion of the Election Commission and act accordingly.

4. The Anti-Defection Law (10th Schedule)

A member can also be disqualified on grounds of defection under the Tenth Schedule (added by the 52nd Amendment Act, 1985):

Voluntary Giving Up: If they voluntarily give up membership of their political party.
Voting Against Party: If they vote (or abstain) contrary to party directions without prior permission.
Independents: If an independent member joins any political party.
Nominated Members: If they join a political party after 6 months.

Who Decides? The Chairman (Rajya Sabha) or Speaker (Lok Sabha) decides on disqualification for defection. Their decision is subject to Judicial Review.

Detailed Summary Table

Feature	Rajya Sabha	Lok Sabha
Duration	Permanent	5 Years
Min. Age	30 Years	25 Years
Disqualification (Art 102)	Decided by President (on EC advice)	Decided by President (on EC advice)
Defection (10th Sch)	Decided by Chairman	Decided by Speaker

Legislative Continuity • Art. 83-102

Parliamentary Standards

Duration & Membership

Duration of the Houses (Art. 83)

Rajya Sabha: A permanent chamber; 1/3 members retire every 2nd year. Individual term is 6 years (via RPA 1951).

Lok Sabha: Normal term of 5 years; subject to earlier dissolution. Can be extended by 1 year at a time during Emergency.

Deciding Authority

For Article 102, the President decides based on Election Commission advice. For Defection, the Presiding Officer decides.

Disqualification

Decisions under Art 102 are made by the President. EC advice is mandatory and binding.

Anti-Defection

Governed by 10th Schedule. The Speaker or Chairman holds the final deciding power.

Judicial Review

Decisions by the Presiding Officer on defection are subject to review by the High Court/Supreme Court.

The Ethical
Guardrail

The 52nd Amendment (1985) ensures party discipline. Members are disqualified if they switch parties, vote against party whips, or (for independents) join a party post-election. Nominated members are given 6 months to join a party before this rule applies.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (3-February-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials forFebruary 3, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Safeguarding an Ecosystem: Wetlands as a National Public Good

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Environment; Conservation; Ecosystem services) and GS Paper 2 (Governance).

Context: On World Wetlands Day (February 2), experts highlight that while India has robust laws, nearly 40% of its wetlands have vanished over the last three decades.

Key Points:

Implementation Gap: India does not lack laws but consistent, high-quality implementation of the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017.
Ecological Degradation: Beyond the 40% loss, around 50% of the remaining wetlands show signs of severe ecological degradation due to pollution and encroachment.
Disaster Resilience: Mangroves, mudflats, and urban wetlands are identified as “nature-based infrastructure” that should be treated as essential risk buffers for disaster reduction.
Traditional Knowledge: The 2026 theme emphasizes using traditional community knowledge, such as the kenis of Wayanad or kulams of Tamil Nadu, as evidence to strengthen restoration.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Biodiversity Conservation,” “Climate Change Adaptation,” and “Ramsar Sites in India.”

Detailed Analysis:

Watershed Governance: There is an urgent need to shift from departmental silos to watershed-scale governance and from “beautification” to “ecological functionality”.
National Capacity Mission: The editorial advocates for a national mission to train wetland managers in hydrology, restoration ecology, and GIS to bridge existing skill gaps.

2. Trade Deal Breakthrough: U.S. Tariff on India Reduced to 18%

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of policies and politics of developed countries; Bilateral relations).

Context: Following a telephonic conversation between PM Modi and President Trump, the U.S. has agreed to reduce its punitive tariff on “Made in India” products from 50% to 18%.

Key Points:

Reciprocal Reductions: India has reportedly agreed to reduce its own “Tariffs and Non-Tariff Barriers” against the U.S. to zero.
Energy Pivot: In a significant shift, India has agreed to “stop buying Russian oil” and will instead purchase more from the United States and potentially Venezuela.
Trade Commitment: The deal includes an Indian commitment to increase the purchase of U.S. products to a value of $500 billion.
Customs Alignment: Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman clarified that recent Customs Duty cuts in the 2026 Budget were part of a larger domestic reform scheme, though they align with U.S. trade demands.

UPSC Relevance: Critical for “India-U.S. Strategic and Economic Ties,” “Energy Diplomacy,” and “Global Trade Wars.”

Detailed Analysis:

Bilateral Strain Eased: This deal marks a positive turn in a relationship that had been under severe strain since the 50% penalty tariffs were imposed in August 2025.
Domestic Impact: The reduced tariffs are expected to significantly boost the competitiveness of Indian exports in the U.S. market.

3. A Cautious Nudge: The 16th Finance Commission and Fiscal Federalism

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Federalism; Centre-State relations; Constitutional bodies) and GS Paper 3 (Economy).

Context: The 16th Finance Commission (FC-16) has recommended retaining the vertical devolution ratio (States’ share of Central taxes) at 41% for 2026-31.

Key Points:

Horizontal Formula Tweak: The “tax effort” criterion was reworked into a “contribution to GDP” measure, with its weight raised from 2.5% to 10% to reward efficient States.
Population Weight: The weight for population size was modestly increased, while demographic performance weight was reduced, reflecting a shift in how population growth is viewed.
Cess and Surcharge Stress: The Commission flagged the shrinking of the shareable pool due to the Centre’s increased use of cesses and surcharges but did not recommend their inclusion in the pool.
Urban Local Grants: The Commission has tripled grants to urban local governments (ULGs), allocating ₹23.5 lakh crore to improve first-mile infrastructure.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Fiscal Federalism,” “Revenue Sharing Mechanism,” and “State Financial Autonomy.”

Detailed Analysis:

Gradual Restructuring: Gain for industrialised States like Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra is incremental, as the Commission seeks to avoid redistributive shocks to transfer-dependent States.
Structural Imbalance: The editorial argues that the recommendations recognize financial stress but fail to push for the structural changes needed to restore federal balance.

4. A Full Stop: Menstrual Hygiene as a Fundamental Right

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Social Justice; Health; Judiciary) and GS Paper 1 (Social Issues).

Context: A landmark Supreme Court judgment has encapsulated the right to menstrual health and hygiene within the fundamental Right to Life and Dignity under Article 21.

Key Points:

Definition of Autonomy: The Court ruled that bodily autonomy for girls is only meaningful when they have access to functional toilets, water, and hygienic products.
Punitive Measures: States must ensure every school has gender-segregated toilets; non-compliance can lead to the derecognition of private schools.
Menstrual Poverty: The Bench noted that the lack of facilities creates “menstrual poverty,” hindering girls from exercising their right to education on equal terms with males.
Implementation Gaps: While 77.3% of women aged 15-24 now use hygienic methods (NFHS-5), nearly a fourth of eligible women remain without support.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Rights-based Approach to Health,” “Women’s Empowerment,” and “Judicial Activism.”

Detailed Analysis:

Shifting the Onus: The judgment shifts the responsibility to the state to remove the “triptych of stigma, stereotyping, and humiliation” regularly faced by girls.
Policy Integration: The pad project’s motto—”A period should end a sentence, not a girl’s education”—served as an inspiration for the ruling.

5. Visible Progress, Invisible Exclusion: Budget 2026-27 and Labour

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Employment; Government Budgeting).

Context: An analysis of Budget 2026-27 suggests a transition toward a borrowing-heavy doctrine that prioritizes capital expenditure (capex) over labor absorption.

Key Points:

Capex Organising Principle: Capex has risen from 12% of total expenditure in 2020-21 to over 22%, now serving as the backbone of fiscal policy rather than a counter-cyclical tool.
Employment Disconnect: Despite massive public investment, the youth NEET rate (not in education, employment, or training) remains high at 23%-25%.
Structural U-turn: Development theory is being defied as construction’s employment elasticity declines while agriculture—a low-productivity sector—is reabsorbing labor.
Dual Economy: A capital-intensive upper layer drives GDP growth, while a vast lower layer is absorbed into low-productivity informality and self-employment.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for understanding “Jobless Growth,” “Industrial Production Structure,” and “Macro-fiscal Trends.”

Detailed Analysis:

Widening Gap: Net value added per worker has risen sharply, but average emoluments have not kept pace, suggesting efficiency gains are captured as profits rather than labor income.
Priority Reordering: Employment is no longer treated as a primary variable to be engineered but as an eventual by-product of growth.

Editorial Analysis

FEBRUARY 03, 2026

GS-2 IR / TRADE India-U.S. Trade Pivot

U.S. reduces tariffs to 18%. India agrees to pivot from Russian oil and commits to $500 Billion in U.S. product purchases.

GS-2 FED / ECONOMY FC-16 Fiscal Formula

Horizontal weight for “Contribution to GDP” raised to 10%. Grants to urban local bodies tripled to ₹23.5 Lakh Crore.

GS-3 LABOUR Capex vs. Employment

Youth NEET rate high at 23%-25%. GDP driven by a capital-intensive layer while labor is reabsorbed into low-productivity sectors.

ENVIRONMENT: Utilizing traditional community knowledge like Wayanad’s Kenis is vital for restoration.

FEDERALISM: Retention of the 41% vertical devolution share provides stability but misses deeper structural reform.

SOCIAL: Bodily autonomy is meaningful only when girls have access to functional, gender-segregated toilets.

ECONOMY: Net value added per worker is rising, yet labor emoluments lag, indicating efficiency gains captured as profit.

GS-4
Human Dignity

Dignity as a Fundamental Right: The SC judgment recognizes that menstrual health is not just a biological reality but a Constitutional Duty. Eliminating the stigma and stereotypes surrounding menstruation is essential to ensuring genuine equality and dignity for the girl child.

Mapping:

For today’s mapping session, we focus on the strategic geographic updates emerging from the Union Budget 2026–27 and the World Wetlands Day 2026 designations.

1. Environmental Mapping: New Ramsar Sites

As of February 2, 2026, India’s Ramsar network has officially reached 98 sites, reinforcing its position as the leader in Asia.

New Ramsar Site	District/State	Key Features
Patna Bird Sanctuary	Etah, Uttar Pradesh	A critical small wetland (108.8 ha) hosting over 178 bird species; serves as a major winter habitat for Sarus Cranes.
Chhari-Dhand	Kutch, Gujarat	A seasonal desert wetland; habitat for rare species like the Caracal, Desert Fox, and Grey Wolf.

2. Economic Mapping: Strategic Industrial & Mineral Corridors

The 2026 Budget has introduced a new “Resource Map” to reduce import dependence.

Rare Earth Corridors: Planned across Odisha, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu to promote mining of critical minerals like monazite (used for high-end magnets).
East Coast Industrial Corridor (ECIC): A new node at Durgapur (West Bengal) has been announced to enhance manufacturing links in Eastern India.
Rare Earth Permanent Magnet (REPM) Hubs: Strategic points for manufacturing magnets vital for EVs and aerospace.

3. Infrastructure Mapping: High-Speed “Growth Connectors”

Seven new high-speed rail corridors have been mapped to link urban economic regions.

The 7 Corridors:
1. Mumbai–Pune
2. Pune–Hyderabad
3. Hyderabad–Bengaluru
4. Hyderabad–Chennai
5. Chennai–Bengaluru
6. Delhi–Varanasi
7. Varanasi–Siliguri (Strategically connecting the “Chicken’s Neck” corridor).

4. Science & Heritage Mapping Points

National Large Solar Telescope: Being established near Pangong Lake, Ladakh—a key high-altitude mapping point for solar research.
National Large Optical Telescope (30m): Part of the new “Mega Science” infrastructure.
Archaeological Upgrades: 15 heritage sites including Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Dholavira (Gujarat), and Leh Palace (Ladakh) are mapped for massive visitor infrastructure upgrades.

Summary Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Current 2026 Context
Wetland Milestone	98 Sites	India ranks 3rd globally in site count.
Mineral Focus	Rare Earth Corridors	4-state belt (Odisha to Kerala).
Strategic Link	Varanasi–Siliguri	New NE gateway high-speed rail.
Solar Science Hub	Pangong Lake	Site of the National Large Solar Telescope.

Mapping Brief

BUDGET 2026 & RESOURCE MAPPING

HIGH-SPEED RAIL (HSR)

Urban Growth Connectors

Seven new HSR corridors mapped, notably the Varanasi–Siliguri link strategically connecting the “Chicken’s Neck” to North India’s economic hubs.

MEGA SCIENCE INFRASTRUCTURE

High-Altitude Strategic Hubs

Establishment of the National Large Solar Telescope near Pangong Lake, Ladakh, alongside the 30-metre Optical Telescope for advanced research.

HERITAGE ARCHAEOLOGY

Upgrades for 15 sites including Rakhigarhi (HR), Dholavira (GJ), and Leh Palace to integrate tourism with spatial history.

98TH RAMSAR Chhari-Dhand (Kutch, GJ).

CRITICAL MINERALS Rare Earth Hubs (4 States).

SOLAR SCIENCE Pangong Lake Hub (Ladakh).

Atlas Strategy

Spatial foundation: Budget 2026 shifts the “Resource Map” toward **Mineral Sovereignty**. Identifying the overlap between Rare Earth Corridors and existing port infrastructure is vital for GS-III economic analysis.

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 2 Feb 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-6 (Colonialism and the City)

This chapter “Colonialism and the City” explains the transformation of Indian cities under colonial rule, with a specific focus on Delhi.

1. Urbanization and De-urbanization

Under British rule, the landscape of Indian cities shifted dramatically as trade and power dynamics changed.

Growth of Industrial Cities: In the West, cities like Leeds and Manchester grew rapidly due to industrialization. In contrast, Indian cities did not expand as quickly in the 19th century.
Rise of Presidency Cities: Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras became “Presidency cities,” serving as major centers of British power and trade.
De-urbanization: Many older manufacturing and port towns declined.
- Reasons for decline: A drop in demand for specialized goods, the shift of trade to new British ports, and the collapse of regional power centers after local rulers were defeated.
- Affected Cities: Machlipatnam, Surat, and Seringapatam were notable examples of de-urbanized cities in the 19th century.

2. The Splendor of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi)

Before the British transformation, Delhi’s most famous incarnation was Shahjahanabad, built by Shah Jahan starting in 1639.

Structure: It consisted of the Red Fort (palace complex) and an adjoining Walled City with 14 gates.
Key Landmarks:
- Jama Masjid: One of India’s largest and grandest mosques; no place in the city was higher than this mosque at the time.
- Chandni Chowk: A broad main street featuring a canal running down its center.
Culture: The city was a center of Sufi culture, filled with dargahs (tombs), khanqahs (lodges), and idgahs (open prayer spaces).
Social Division: Despite its beauty, there were sharp divisions between the rich (living in mansions called havelis) and the poor (living in mud houses).

3. Delhi Under British Rule (1803–1911)

The British gained control of Delhi in 1803. Initially, their presence was less transformative than in other colonial cities.

Early Coexistence: In the first half of the 19th century, the British lived within the Walled City alongside wealthy Indians and enjoyed Urdu/Persian culture.
The Delhi Renaissance: The period from 1830 to 1857 is often called a “renaissance” due to a great intellectual flowering in sciences and humanities at Delhi College.
Impact of 1857: After the Revolt of 1857, the British sought to erase Delhi’s Mughal past.
- They cleared areas around the Red Fort, destroying gardens and pavilions.
- Mosques were put to other uses; for example, Zinat-al-Masjid became a bakery.
- One-third of the city was demolished, and the British moved to the northern Civil Lines area.

4. The Planning of New Delhi

In 1911, the British announced the shift of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi.

Architects: Edward Lutyens and Herbert Baker were commissioned to design the new 10-square-mile city on Raisina Hill.
Symbolism of Power: The buildings were designed to assert British importance.
- The Viceroy’s Palace (now Rashtrapati Bhavan) was intentionally built higher than the Jama Masjid.
- Architectural styles borrowed from Classical Greece, the Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, and Mughal jalis.
Design Philosophy: In contrast to the “chaos” and “crowded mohallas” of the Old City, New Delhi featured broad, straight streets and sprawling mansions.
Health and Hygiene: New Delhi was planned as a “clean and healthy space” with better water supply, drainage, and green trees for fresh air.

5. Partition and its Impact (1947)

The Partition of India in 1947 radically changed Delhi’s population and culture.

Population Shift: Thousands of Muslims migrated to Pakistan, while Sikh and Hindu refugees from Punjab flooded into Delhi.
Refugee Life: New colonies like Lajpat Nagar and Tilak Nagar emerged to house the nearly 500,000 migrants who arrived.
Social and Cultural Change: The migrants’ occupations (landlords, lawyers, traders) differed from the artisans and laborers they replaced. The Urdu-based urban culture was overshadowed by new tastes in food, dress, and the arts brought from Punjab.

6. Comparison of Residential Spaces

Feature	Haveli (Mughal Mansion)	Colonial Bungalow
Residents	Multiple families.	One nuclear family.
Design	Walled compounds with courtyards and fountains.	Single-storeyed with a pitched roof and wide verandas.
Gendered Space	Outer courtyard for men; inner pavilions for women.	Separate living, dining, and bedrooms.
Grounds	Densely packed within the city.	Set in one or two acres of open ground.

NCERT History • Class-8

Chapter – 6

Colonialism and the City

The Creation of New Delhi

1911 Capital Shift: The British moved the capital from Calcutta to Delhi to reassert their imperial legitimacy.

Architectural Vision: Edward Lutyens and Herbert Baker designed New Delhi on Raisina Hill, emphasizing straight broad streets and health-focused planning.

Symbol of Power: The Viceroy’s Palace was built higher than the Jama Masjid to symbolize British dominance over the Mughal past.

Partition (1947): The city’s culture shifted as Muslim residents migrated to Pakistan, replaced by 500,000 Hindu and Sikh refugees from Punjab.

New Urban Form: Refugee colonies like Lajpat Nagar emerged, and a new Punjabi-influenced culture replaced the older Urdu-based traditions.

Haveli

Mughal mansions featuring courtyards and gendered spaces for multiple families.

Bungalow

Colonial single-family homes with pitched roofs, verandas, and vast open grounds.

Gulistan

The garden-like quality of Old Delhi, much of which was demolished post-1857.

Dual Cities

Colonial Delhi was a tale of two cities: the crowded, historical Shahjahanabad and the expansive, ordered New Delhi. This transition reflected the British desire to replace Mughal tradition with a “modern” imperial order.

📂

Class-8 History Chapter-6 PDF

Complete Study Notes: Colonialism and the City

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⚖️Indian Polity: Parliament (Part V) – Composition of Rajya Sabha & Lok Sabha

Under the Indian Constitution, the Parliament is not just the two Houses; it is a three-part body.

The Parliament = The President + Rajya Sabha + Lok Sabha.

Composition of the Parliament (Part V)

1. Article 79: Constitution of Parliament

This article specifies that there shall be a Parliament for the Union, consisting of the President and two Houses to be known respectively as the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha).

Note: Although the President is not a member of either House, they are an integral part of Parliament because no bill can become law without the President’s assent.

2. Article 80: Composition of Rajya Sabha (Upper House)

The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and is not subject to dissolution. It represents the States and Union Territories.

Maximum Strength:250
- 238 are representatives of the States and UTs (elected indirectly).
- 12 are nominated by the President (from fields of Art, Literature, Science, and Social Service).
Current Strength: 245 (233 elected + 12 nominated).
Election Process:
- Representatives of States are elected by the elected members of State Legislative Assemblies (MLAs).
- Method: Proportional representation by means of a Single Transferable Vote.
Representation: Seats are allotted to states based on population. (Unlike the US Senate, where every state has equal representation).

3. Article 81: Composition of Lok Sabha (Lower House)

The Lok Sabha is the popular house, representing the people of India as a whole.

Maximum Strength:550 (Earlier 552, but 2 seats for Anglo-Indians were abolished).
- 530 representatives of the States.
- 20 representatives of the Union Territories.
Current Strength: 543 (All elected).
Election Process:
- Members are elected directly by the people on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise.
- Every citizen who is not less than 18 years of age (61st Amendment Act, 1988) has the right to vote.
Territorial Constituencies: Each state is divided into territorial constituencies such that the ratio between the population of each constituency and the number of seats allotted to it is, as far as practicable, the same throughout the state.

4. Key Differences: Rajya Sabha vs. Lok Sabha

Use this table for a quick “Comparison Guide” on your website:

Feature	Rajya Sabha (Council of States)	Lok Sabha (House of the People)
Common Name	Upper House / House of Elders	Lower House / Popular House
Term	Permanent Body (1/3 members retire every 2nd year)	5 Years (Can be dissolved earlier)
Presiding Officer	Vice-President (Chairman)	Speaker
Minimum Age	30 Years	25 Years
Max Strength	250	550
Election Type	Indirect (By MLAs)	Direct (By the People)

5. Duration of the Houses (Article 83)

Rajya Sabha: It is a permanent body. The term of an individual member is 6 years.
Lok Sabha: Its normal term is 5 years. However, during a National Emergency, its term can be extended by Parliament for one year at a time for any length of time.

Union Legislature • Part V • Art. 79-83

Constitution of India

Composition of Parliament

Rajya Sabha (Art. 80)

Strength: Max 250 (Current 245). Includes 12 members nominated by the President for excellence in Art, Science, Literature, and Social Service.

Elections: Indirectly elected by MLAs of States via Proportional Representation. Seats are allotted based on population.

Lok Sabha (Art. 81)

Strength: Max 550. Direct election by people on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise (Age 18+).

Structure: 530 reps from States + 20 from UTs. Territorial constituencies are divided to maintain a uniform population-seat ratio.

Minimum Age

To be a member, one must be 30 years for Rajya Sabha and 25 years for Lok Sabha.

House Names

RS: Upper House / Council of States.
LS: Lower House / House of the People.

Presiding Officers

RS: Vice-President (Ex-officio Chairman).
LS: Speaker (Elected by members).

Key
Amendments

The 61st Amendment (1988) lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. Recently, the 104th Amendment Act abolished the provision for nominating 2 members of the Anglo-Indian community to the Lok Sabha, reducing the max strength from 552 to 550.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (2-February-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials forFebruary 2, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. Union Budget 2026: Prudence over Adventurism

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Government Budgeting; Mobilization of resources).

Context: Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman presented the Union Budget 2026, the first in the second quarter of the 21st century, focusing on productivity and employment.

Key Points:

Fiscal Prudence: The Budget avoids “Big Bang” reforms or major direct tax relaxations, opting instead for a “scatter-shot” approach to propel medium-term growth.
Capex Scale-up: The Centre’s capital expenditure target is set at ₹12.2 lakh crore for 2026-27 (4.4% of GDP), the highest in at least 10 years.
Fiscal Deficit: The deficit target is set at 4.3% of GDP for FY27, down from an estimated 4.4% in FY26.
Indirect Tax Relief: Customs duties were reduced for sectors like marine, leather, and textiles to boost exports and support energy transition.
New Tax Act: The Income Tax Act of 2025 will take effect from April 1, 2026, aiming to make direct tax laws “concise and easy to understand.”

UPSC Relevance: Essential for questions on “Macroeconomic Stability,” “Capital Expenditure Impact,” and “Fiscal Consolidation.”

Detailed Analysis:

Three Kartavyas: The Budget is structured around three “duties”: sustaining growth, fulfilling aspirations, and ensuring meaningful participation for all regions and sectors.
Tax Revenue Sobriety: Tax projections are conservative; Corporate tax is projected to grow 14%, while Income-tax growth is pegged at 1.9% following last year’s relaxations.
End of Compensation Cess: GST revenue is projected to contract by 13.5% due to the end of the Compensation Cess and 2025 rate rationalizations.

2. Strategic Manufacturing: Moving Beyond PLI

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Industrial Policy; Manufacturing; Science and Tech).

Context: The Budget signals an intent to deepen India’s capabilities in high-value, technology-intensive frontier sectors.

Key Points:

Strategic Sectors: Emphasis is placed on seven critical industries: biopharma, semiconductors, electronics, rare earths, chemicals, capital goods, and textiles.
Biopharma SHAKTI: A ₹10,000-crore outlay over five years to facilitate domestic production of biologics and biosimilars and set up three new NIPERs.
ISM 2.0: Launch of India Semiconductor Mission 2.0 to move from fabrication to domestic production of equipment and materials.
Rare Earth Corridors: Proposed in Odisha, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu to secure critical minerals for electronics and clean energy.
MSME Support: A new ₹10,000 crore SME Growth Fund for equity support and rejuvenation of 200 legacy industrial clusters.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Atmanirbhar Bharat,” “Critical Mineral Security,” and “Industrial Transformation.”

Detailed Analysis:

Value Chain Ascent: The move represents an effort to shift India’s export composition from low-value goods to high-complexity products like precision engineering.
Regulatory Clarity: The expansion of the “safe harbour” threshold to ₹2,000 crore for Global Capability Centres (GCCs) provides fiscal predictability for large tech firms.

3. Infrastructure and Connectivity: The ‘Growth Connectors’

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Infrastructure; Railways; Logistics).

Context: A major push for high-speed connectivity and logistics efficiency as primary levers for economic renewal.

Key Points:

High-Speed Rail: Seven new corridors (4,000 km network) announced at a cost of ₹16 lakh crore, connecting five Southern states and North India (e.g., Delhi-Varanasi).
Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFC): A new corridor connecting Dankuni (West Bengal) to Surat (Gujarat) was announced.
Inland Waterways: Operationalization of 20 new national waterways, starting with NW-5 in Odisha, to double the modal share of water transport.
Maritime Rejuvenation: ₹10,000 crore allocated for container manufacturing in India over five years to reduce dependency on foreign tonnage.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Logistics Costs Reduction,” “Regional Development,” and “Modernization of Railways.”

Detailed Analysis:

Travel Time Reduction: The high-speed network aims to drastically cut travel times (e.g., Chennai-Bengaluru to 1.5 hours; Delhi-Varanasi to 3 hours 50 mins).
Logistics Efficiency: Shifting bulk cargo from road/rail to waterways targets a reduction in freight costs to 12% by 2047.

4. Social Sector: Redefining Welfare Responsibility

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Social Justice; Education; Health; Welfare Schemes).

Context: The Budget consolidates a trend where welfare spending is increasingly shifted to State governments.

Key Points:

Education Hike: Allocation for the Education Ministry rose 14.21% to ₹1.39 lakh crore, with focus on STEM hostels for girls in every district.
Mental Health Focus: Establishment of two new national mental health institutes (Ranchi and Tezpur) and a new NIMHANS-like institute in North India.
Rural Employment: A 43% hike in rural job budgets, with the new VB-G RAM G Act (replacing MGNREGA) and a ₹30,000 crore allocation to clear MGNREGS liabilities.
Geriatric Care: A strong care ecosystem for the elderly, with NSQF-aligned training for 1.5 lakh caregivers.

UPSC Relevance: Crucial for “Fiscal Federalism,” “Human Capital Development,” and “Vulnerable Sections Empowerment.”

Detailed Analysis:

Cost-Sharing Shift: The new VB-G RAM G scheme requires a 60:40 Centre-State cost-sharing ratio, placing a significant financial burden on States.
Health Spending Stagnation: Despite some highlights, health expenditure remains low at 1.96% of the overall budget, a marginal rise from previous years.

5. Fiscal Federalism: The 16th Finance Commission Report

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Federalism; Centre-State Relations; Constitutional Bodies).

Context: The 16th Finance Commission (FC) report recommended retaining the 41% share of tax devolution to States, which the Centre has accepted.

Key Points:

Formula Tweaks: The new formula increases the weightage of population (17.5% from 15%) while reducing the weightage for demographic performance (10% from 12.5%).
Southern Gains: Despite the tweaks, the shares for five Southern States (TN, Kerala, AP, Telangana, Karnataka) have risen due to other weighted factors.
Shrinking Divisible Pool: The report noted that cesses and surcharges have reduced the shareable pool from 89.1% (2014-15) to roughly 74%-80% of gross tax revenues.
Local Body Grants: Provision of ₹21.4 lakh crore for FY 2026-27 as grants for rural/urban local bodies and disaster management.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Revenue Sharing Mechanism,” “Demographic Challenges,” and “Horizontal vs. Vertical Devolution.”

Detailed Analysis:

Per Capita Income Weight: The difference in per capita GSDP remains the highest weighted factor at 42.5%, highlighting a focus on inter-state equity.
State Discontent: Some states (e.g., Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh) expressed disappointment over the discontinuation of certain Revenue Deficit Grants and lower overall shares compared to previous commissions.

Editorial Analysis

FEBRUARY 02, 2026

GS-3 INDUSTRY Beyond PLI: Strategic Hubs

₹10,000cr for Biopharma SHAKTI. Launch of rare earth corridors and ISM 2.0 to secure Critical Mineral value chains.

GS-3 INFRA The Growth Connectors

High-speed rail connecting 5 southern states. Aiming for 12% Logistics Costs by 2047 through 20 new national waterways.

GS-2 SOC JUS Welfare Consolidation

New VB-G RAM G Act replaces MGNREGA. STEM hostels for girls in every district and focused geriatric caregiver training.

FEDERALISM: The shift to 60:40 cost-sharing in rural employment marks a significant transfer of welfare burden to States.

CONNECTIVITY: Chennai-Bengaluru transit reduced to 1.5 hours; Delhi-Varanasi to under 4 hours via high-speed corridors.

MANUFACTURING: SME Growth Fund targets rejuvenation of 200 legacy industrial clusters through equity support.

HEALTH: Establishment of NIMHANS-like institutes reflects an urgent budgetary focus on human capital and mental health.

GS-4
Fiscal Duty

Prudence vs. Aspiration: The 2026 Budget navigates the “Three Kartavyas” of growth and participation. However, the stagnation of health spending at 1.96% challenges the ethical imperative of universal well-being amidst rising capital ambitions.

Mapping:

For today’s mapping session, we focus on the strategic infrastructure and ecological updates from the Union Budget 2026–27 (presented yesterday, Feb 1st) and the recent World Wetlands Day announcements.

1. Newly Added Ramsar Sites (World Wetlands Day 2026)

As of January 31, 2026, India has officially expanded its Ramsar network to 98 sites. Mapping these “fragile ecosystems” is essential for the 2026 environment syllabus.

New Ramsar Site	Location	Key Biodiversity/Features
Patna Bird Sanctuary	Etah, Uttar Pradesh	A critical stopover for migratory birds; home to endangered avifauna and desert foxes.
Chhari-Dhand	Kutch, Gujarat	A seasonal wetland in the Rann of Kutch; habitat for caracal, desert cats, and wolves.

Mapping Fact: India’s Ramsar network has grown by 276% since 2014, currently totaling 98 sites.

2. Strategic Infrastructure: High-Speed Rail Corridors

Budget 2026 has announced 7 new High-Speed Rail Corridors to decentralize growth. Mapping these is vital for the “Transport and Urbanization” section.

Primary Corridors to Map:
- Mumbai–Pune–Hyderabad
- Hyderabad–Bengaluru–Chennai
- Chennai–Bengaluru
- Delhi–Varanasi–Siliguri (Connecting North India to the gateway of the North-East).

3. Science & Research Infrastructure

The government is mapping out “Mega Science” facilities in strategic high-altitude locations.

National Large Solar Telescope: Being set up near Pangong Lake, Ladakh.
30-metre National Large Optical Telescope: A key strategic and scientific mapping point for the Himalayan region.

4. Cultural & Heritage Circuits (Budget 2026)

The Buddhist Circuit and Ancient Archaeological Sites are receiving specialized funding for visitor infrastructure.

Archaeological Mapping Points:
- Lothal & Dholavira (Gujarat) (Harappan sites).
- Rakhigarhi (Haryana).
- Leh Palace (Ladakh).
North-East Buddhist Circuit: Focuses on connecting heritage sites across the Seven Sisters to boost pilgrim tourism.

Summary Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Current 2026 Context
New Wetland Hub	Chhari-Dhand	Kutch, Gujarat.
Rail Connectivity	Varanasi–Siliguri	New high-speed link to NE India.
Solar Science	Pangong Lake Hub	New Large Solar Telescope.
Oldest Site Development	Rakhigarhi	Major Harappan site upgrade.

Mapping Brief

BUDGET 2026 & ECOLOGICAL UPDATES

BUDGET 2026 INFRASTRUCTURE

High-Speed Rail Corridors

Seven new corridors are slated for development, including the strategic Delhi–Varanasi–Siliguri link, serving as a rapid gateway to North-East India.

CULTURAL & HERITAGE CIRCUITS

Archaeological Mapping

Focus on Harappan nodes like Lothal and Dholavira, alongside major upgrades to Rakhigarhi (HR) and the Leh Palace (Ladakh).

North-East Buddhist Circuit

Dedicated infrastructure to connect historical Buddhist sites across the Seven Sisters, boosting spiritual tourism and regional connectivity.

WETLAND HUB Chhari-Dhand (Kutch, Gujarat).

NE CONNECT Varanasi–Siliguri Rail Link.

SOLAR SCIENCE Pangong Lake Hub (Ladakh).

Atlas Strategy

Spatial foundation: Budget 2026 emphasizes spatial decentralization. Mapping the overlap between high-speed rail nodes and archaeological heritage sites is critical for analyzing future urban growth poles in GS-I and GS-III.

IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 31 Jan 2026

Study Target
Editorial Analysis
Mapping

NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-5 (When People Rebel – 1857 and After)

Chapter 5, “When People Rebel: 1857 and After,” details the causes, events, and consequences of the massive popular uprising against British rule in India.

1. Policies and People

The policies of the East India Company affected different sections of society—kings, queens, peasants, landlords, tribals, and soldiers—in various ways.

Nawabs Lose Power: Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas lost their authority and honor as British Residents were stationed in courts and territories were annexed.
The Case of Awadh: In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh, and it was finally annexed in 1856 on grounds of “misgovernment”.
Peasants and Zamindars: In the countryside, peasants and zamindars resented the high taxes and rigid methods of revenue collection.
The Indian Sepoys: Sepoys were unhappy about their pay, allowances, and service conditions. Some rules violated their religious sensibilities, such as the requirement to travel overseas, which many believed would cause them to lose their religion and caste.

2. Responses to Reforms

The British believed that Indian society needed to be reformed.

Social Laws: Laws were passed to stop the practice of sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows.
Education: English-language education was actively promoted.
Religious Changes: After 1830, Christian missionaries were allowed to function freely and even own land. A new law in 1850 made conversion to Christianity easier and allowed converts to inherit ancestral property.

3. A Mutiny Becomes a Popular Rebellion

What began as a military mutiny in May 1857 developed into a widespread rebellion that threatened the British presence in India.

From Meerut to Delhi

The Incident: On March 29, 1857, Mangal Pandey was hanged for attacking his officers in Barrackpore.
The Greased Cartridges: Sepoys in Meerut refused to use new cartridges suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs.
The March: On May 10, soldiers in Meerut rebelled, released imprisoned sepoys, and marched to Delhi. They proclaimed the aging Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as their leader.

The Rebellion Spreads

Regiments Mutiny: One by one, regiments rose up and joined other troops at nodal points like Delhi, Kanpur, and Lucknow.
Key Leaders:
- Kanpur: Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
- Lucknow: Birjis Qadr, son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah.
- Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai joined the sepoys to fight the British alongside Tantia Tope.
- Bihar: Kunwar Singh, an old zamindar, joined the rebel sepoys.

4. The Company Fights Back

The Company decided to repress the revolt with all its might.

Recapturing Delhi: Reinforcements were brought from England, and Delhi was recaptured in September 1857.
Fate of the Emperor: Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court, sentenced to life imprisonment, and sent to a jail in Rangoon with his wife.
Continued Resistance: Lucknow was taken in March 1858, and Rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed in June 1858. Tantia Tope carried on a guerrilla war but was eventually captured and killed in April 1859.

5. Aftermath and Key Changes

The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 to ensure more responsible management of Indian affairs.

Transfer of Power: Powers of the East India Company were transferred to the British Crown. A member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India.
Governor-General: The title of the Governor-General was changed to Viceroy, representing the Crown.
Ruling Chiefs: Ruling chiefs were assured that their territory would never be annexed in the future, provided they acknowledged the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount.
Military Reorganization: The proportion of Indian soldiers was reduced, and the number of European soldiers was increased. Recruitment shifted toward Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Pathans.
Religious Respect: The British promised to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India.

Key Leaders of the 1857 Rebellion

Leader	Region/Location	Role and Key Actions
Bahadur Shah Zafar	Delhi	The aging Mughal Emperor who was proclaimed the leader of the rebellion by the sepoys. His support gave the uprising symbolic legitimacy.
Nana Saheb	Kanpur	The adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao II. He expelled the British garrison from Kanpur and proclaimed himself Peshwa under the Mughal Emperor.
Rani Lakshmibai	Jhansi	Joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British vigorously to reclaim her kingdom after it was annexed. She was supported by Tantia Tope.
Birjis Qadr	Lucknow	The son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. He was proclaimed the new Nawab and acknowledged the suzerainty of Bahadur Shah Zafar.
Begum Hazrat Mahal	Lucknow	The mother of Birjis Qadr, she took an active part in organizing the uprising against the British in Lucknow.
Kunwar Singh	Bihar	An elderly zamindar from Arrah who joined the rebel sepoys and battled the British for many months.
Bakht Khan	Delhi	A soldier from Bareilly who took charge of a large force of fighters who came to Delhi and became a key military leader of the rebellion.
Ahmadullah Shah	Faizabad	A maulvi who prophesied the end of British rule and led a large force of supporters to Lucknow to fight the British.
Tantia Tope	Central India / Jhansi	A close associate of Nana Saheb and a skilled general who led guerrilla warfare against the British even after many major centers had fallen.

Impact and Consequences

Military Defeat: Despite the scale of the uprising, the British recaptured Delhi in September 1857 and Lucknow in March 1858.
End of the Mughals: Bahadur Shah Zafar was captured, tried, and exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862, effectively ending the Mughal dynasty.
Policy Shift: The British Crown took direct control of India from the East India Company through the Act of 1858.

NCERT History • Class-8

Chapter – 5

When People Rebel – 1857 and After

The Uprising & Its Leaders

Meerut to Delhi: On May 10, 1857, soldiers rebelled and marched to Delhi, proclaiming Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader.

Key Nodal Points: Nana Saheb led in Kanpur, Rani Lakshmibai in Jhansi, and Begum Hazrat Mahal in Lucknow.

The Response: British recaptured Delhi in Sept 1857. Zafar was exiled to Rangoon; Lakshmibai fell in battle (1858).

New Administration: The Act of 1858 transferred power from the Company to the British Crown, led by a Viceroy.

Military Shift: The ratio of European soldiers was increased, and recruitment shifted toward Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Pathans.

Mangal Pandey

Hanged on March 29, 1857, for attacking his officers in Barrackpore.

Secretary of State

A British Cabinet member appointed in 1858 to manage Indian affairs.

Tantia Tope

Skilled general who led guerrilla warfare until his capture in 1859.

A New Era

The 1857 rebellion was a seismic shift in Indian history. While the military revolt was suppressed, it ended Company rule and forced the British to rethink their policies on religion, territory, and Indian governance.

📂

Class-8 History Chapter-5 PDF

Complete Study Notes: When People Rebel – 1857 and After

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⚖️Indian Polity: Attorney General of India (Art 76): Appointment, Duties & Rights

The Attorney General (AG) of India is the highest law officer in the country. This office is unique because, while it is a part of the Union Executive, it is a professional legal post rather than a political one.

The Attorney General of India (Article 76)

The Attorney General acts as the Chief Legal Advisor to the Government of India and represents the Union in all legal matters, especially before the Supreme Court.

1. Appointment and Term

Appointment: The Attorney General is appointed by the President on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
Qualifications: A person must be qualified to be appointed as a Judge of the Supreme Court. This means:
1. They must be a citizen of India.
2. They must have been a Judge of a High Court for 5 years OR an Advocate of a High Court for 10 years OR a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.
Tenure: The Constitution does not fix a specific term for the AG.
- They hold office during the pleasure of the President.
- Traditionally, the AG resigns when the government (Council of Ministers) resigns or is replaced, as they are appointed on its advice.
Remuneration: Not fixed by the Constitution; determined by the President.

2. Duties and Functions

The primary duty of the AG is to give advice to the Government of India upon legal matters.

Legal Advice: To advise the Government on legal issues referred by the President.
Representation: To appear on behalf of the Government of India in all cases in the Supreme Court and any High Court in which the Government is concerned.
Article 143: To represent the Government of India in any reference made by the President to the Supreme Court under Article 143 (Consultative Jurisdiction).
Constitutional Duties: To discharge any other functions conferred by the Constitution or any other law.

3. Rights and Privileges

The AG has unique rights that bridge the gap between the Executive and the Legislature:

Right of Audience: The AG has the right of audience in all courts in the territory of India.
Parliamentary Participation: The AG has the right to speak and take part in the proceedings of both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) or their joint sittings, and any committee of Parliament of which they may be named a member.
NO Right to Vote: Despite participating in Parliament, the AG cannot vote.
Immunities: They enjoy all the privileges and immunities that are available to a Member of Parliament.

4. Limitations

To prevent conflict of interest, the AG is subject to certain restrictions:

They should not advise or hold a brief against the Government of India.
They should not defend accused persons in criminal prosecutions without the permission of the Government.
They should not accept appointment as a director in any company without Government permission.
Note: The AG is not a full-time counsel for the Government and is not a government servant; therefore, they are not debarred from private legal practice.

Summary Table

Feature	Detail
Article	76
Highest Post	Chief Law Officer of India
Appointed By	President
Parliamentary Right	Can speak in both Houses, but No Vote
Term	Pleasure of the President (No fixed term)
Private Practice	Allowed (Not a government servant)

Union Executive • Highest Law Officer

Article 76

Attorney General of India

Duties & Representation

Chief Advisor: Advises the GOI on legal matters and performs functions referred by the President.

Court Presence: Appears for the Union in the Supreme Court and any High Court concerncing GOI matters (including Art. 143 references).

Parliamentary Rights

Has the right to speak and participate in the proceedings of both Houses and their committees, but carries No Right to Vote.

Right of Audience

Enjoys the right of audience in all courts within the territory of India while performing duties.

Private Practice

Not a full-time government servant; therefore, not debarred from private legal practice.

Immunities

Entitled to all privileges and immunities available to a Member of Parliament (MP).

Ethical
Boundaries

To prevent conflicts of interest, the AG cannot advise against the GOI or defend accused persons in criminal cases without government permission. While the office is professional, the AG traditionally resigns when the appointing Government is replaced.

“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (31-January-2026)

Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 31, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.

1. A Job Well Done: Analysis of Economic Survey 2025-26

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Growth and development; Mobilization of resources).

Context: Chief Economic Adviser (CEA) V. Anantha Nageswaran has presented a stable and ambitious medium-term framework for India’s economy.

Key Points:

Growth Stability: The Survey paints a favorable picture of India’s economy, projecting growth acceleration past the turbulent pandemic years.
Global Crisis Risk: It assigns a 10%-20% probability to the global economy descending into a crisis in 2026 worse than the 2008 financial crash.
Entrepreneurial State: The CEA pushes for a dynamic shift in policymaking, advocating for a state that is more agile, risk-taking, and willing to experiment.
Fiscal Prudence: While seeking fiscal flexibility for the Centre to address geoeconomic uncertainties, it cautions States against “fiscal populism” and rising revenue deficits.
Hidden Challenges: The Survey highlights emerging issues like the impact of ethanol production on food security, lack of fodder, and the mental health impact of “compulsive scrolling” on smartphones.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Macroeconomic Stability,” “Fiscal Federalism,” and “Economic Planning.”

Detailed Analysis:

Rupee Fundamentals: The falling rupee is attributed to capital flows toward countries with advanced AI industries and safe-haven assets rather than domestic economic weakness.
Strategic Indispensability: To overcome structural weaknesses where India is not yet “strategically vital” to supply chains, the Survey focuses on building long-term strategic resilience.

2. Stay the Course: The Debate over Campus Equity Rules

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Education; Social Justice).

Context: The Supreme Court stayed the UGC’s 2026 Promotion of Equity rules, calling them “too sweeping” following protests in northern India.

Key Points:

Addressing Discrimination: The rules aimed to tackle persisting caste-based discrimination, with UGC figures showing such complaints have more than doubled in five years.
Institutional Accountability: The new framework mandates equal opportunity centers, equity squads, and time-bound complaint resolution with strict penalties for non-compliance.
Definitional Friction: Protesters take issue with the definition of caste discrimination focusing only on SC/ST/OBC students, which some argue is unfair to the general category.
False Complaints: The removal of provisions to act against false complaints from the final draft has become a major point of contention.

UPSC Relevance: Important for “Social Justice in Higher Education,” “Institutional Oversight,” and “Judicial Review.”

Detailed Analysis:

Balancing Recourse: While caste discrimination almost exclusively targets lower castes, the editorial suggests the Court could consider a broader definition to achieve the overall goal of equity.
Protecting Complainants: A potential solution is ensuring only complaints proven to be maliciously motivated are actionable, avoiding a “chilling effect” on genuine victims.

3. Green Steel: Shaping India’s Climate Goals

Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Environment; Infrastructure; Industrial Policy).

Context: As India revises its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) for COP30, the steel sector emerges as the most critical frontier for decarbonization.

Key Points:

Cornerstone of Growth: Steel production must more than triple to over 400 million tonnes by mid-century to meet India’s development needs.
Emission Burden: The sector currently accounts for 12% of India’s carbon emissions due to a heavy reliance on coal.
Avoiding Carbon Lock-in: Transitioning now is vital to avoid locking in billions of dollars in “carbon inefficient” technologies that could become environmentally and economically disastrous.
Global Competitiveness: EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) means early movers in green steel will secure access to premium export markets.

UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Climate Change Mitigation,” “Sustainable Industrialization,” and “Energy Transition.”

Detailed Analysis:

Transition Barriers: Major hurdles include the high cost of green hydrogen, insufficient dedicated renewable energy for industry, and the informal nature of the scrap market.
Policy Pathway: The government needs to implement a carbon price regime and provide fiscal support to smaller players to ensure an equitable transition.

4. Pakistan’s Democratic Dilemma: The 27th Amendment

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of regional policies on India’s interests; Neighborhood relations).

Context: Pakistan’s recent 27th Amendment (PCA) significantly alters the country’s constitutional order by sidelining its Supreme Court.

Key Points:

Judicial Fragmentation: The PCA transfers jurisdiction over constitutional interpretation and provincial disputes to a newly created Federal Constitutional Court (FCC).
Executive Influence: By diluting the Supreme Court’s role as the final arbiter, the amendment makes judicial authority vulnerable to institutional marginalization under the executive.
South Asian Strain: This move is part of a broader regional trend of institutional strain and political instability in the Global South.
Lesson for India: The editorial emphasizes that constitutional democracy survives not on text alone, but on the continued independence of courts and respect for boundaries.

UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Neighborhood Dynamics,” “Constitutional Governance,” and “Independence of Judiciary.”

Detailed Analysis:

Consolidation of Power: The amendment is viewed as a tool to legitimize the concentration of power rather than deepening democratic guarantees.
Rule of Law Equilibrium: Removing adjudication from the top court unsettles the balance of power carefully restored by previous constitutional measures.

5. Stem Cell Therapy: A Clinical Red Line for Autism

Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Governance; Issues relating to health; Regulatory bodies) and GS Paper 3 (Science & Tech).

Context: The Supreme Court ruled that stem cell therapies cannot be offered as a clinical service for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

Key Points:

Lack of Evidence: The Bench noted a “dearth of established scientific evidence” regarding the efficacy and safety of stem cell use for ASD.
Ethical Boundary: Consent obtained from parents for such unproven treatments is considered invalid as doctors cannot satisfy the prerequisite of disclosing adequate information.
Regulatory Failure: The Court criticized the Union government for failing to act against clinics promoting “miraculous cures” at huge financial costs to vulnerable parents.
New Oversight: The government is directed to constitute a dedicated authority for regulatory oversight over all stem cell research in India.

UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Bioethics,” “Health Regulations,” and “Scientific Validity in Medicine.”

Detailed Analysis:

Reasonable Standard of Care: Administering scientifically unvalidated procedures fails the standard of care doctors owe to their patients.
Patient Autonomy: The Court clarified that patient autonomy cannot be stretched to entitle someone to a procedure that is ethically impermissible.

Editorial Analysis

JANUARY 31, 2026

GS-3 ECONOMY Survey: Hidden Challenges

CEA warns of Compulsive Scrolling and mental health risks. Advocating for a state that is agile, risk-taking, and experimental.

GS-3 ENV Green Steel Frontiers

Decarbonizing a sector responsible for 12% of Emissions. Vital transition needed to triple output to 400MT by mid-century.

GS-2 HEALTH Stem Cell Autism Ruling

SC forbids unproven therapies as clinical services. Doctors must uphold the Standard of Care despite parental pressure for “miraculous cures.”

FINANCE: Falling rupee is driven by global AI capital flows, not domestic fundamentals; states must avoid fiscal populism.

ENVIRONMENT: Early movers in Green Steel will secure access to premium export markets under the EU’s CBAM regime.

GOVERNANCE: Constitutional democracy survives on the independence of courts and respect for institutional boundaries.

HEALTH: Patient autonomy does not entitle one to medically unvalidated or ethically impermissible procedures.

GS-4
Bioethics

Scientific Validity vs. Hope: Administering unvalidated stem-cell procedures for ASD fails the ethical duty of care. Doctors cannot abdicate responsibility by hiding behind invalid consent; true professional integrity requires protecting patients from unproven medical exploitation.

Mapping:

For today’s mapping session, we focus on New Tiger Reserves, Ramsar Site expansion, and Deep-Sea Resource Exploration.

1. India’s Latest Tiger Reserves (2025–2026)

As of early 2026, India has 58 Tiger Reserves. Mapping the newest additions is a high-priority task for competitive exams.

Madhav Tiger Reserve (58th), Madhya Pradesh: Notified in March 2025, it is the newest and 9th tiger reserve in MP.
- Mapping Point: Located in the Shivpuri district, connecting the northern Aravalli-Vindhya landscape.
Ratapani Tiger Reserve (57th), Madhya Pradesh: A critical corridor between the Bhopal and Hoshangabad regions.
Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla (56th), Chhattisgarh: One of the largest reserves in the country, providing a contiguous habitat across the Chhattisgarh-UP-MP border.

2. Ramsar Sites Milestone (January 2026)

India has expanded its tally to 96 Ramsar Sites, maintaining its position as first in Asia and third globally in site count.

New Ramsar Site	State	Key Significance
Kopra Reservoir	Chhattisgarh	India’s 95th site; the first Ramsar site for Chhattisgarh, located in Bilaspur.
Siliserh Lake	Rajasthan	India’s 96th site; located in Alwar, it is a critical semi-arid freshwater habitat.
Gogabeel Lake	Bihar	India’s 94th site; a major oxbow lake in the Katihar district.

State Ranking: Tamil Nadu leads with 20 sites, followed by Uttar Pradesh with 10 sites.

3. Deep Ocean Mission & Maritime Mapping

India is intensifying its focus on the “Blue Economy” through the Samudrayaan project.

Polymetallic Nodule (PMN) Site: India is exploring a 75,000 sq. km area in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB).
- Mapping Point: Mark the CIOB, where minerals like Manganese, Nickel, and Cobalt are being mapped at depths of 5,000+ meters.
Hydrothermal Sulphide Sites: Mapping multi-metal deposits along the Indian Ocean Mid-Oceanic Ridges.
Matsya 6000 Trials: The manned submersible is undergoing shallow-water tests off the Chennai coast in early 2026.

4. Geographical Indication (GI) New Entries

Mapping these “Product-to-Place” tags is essential for your website’s regional geography section.

Kaladi (J&K): A traditional dairy product (“Mozzarella of Jammu”) from Udhampur being upscaled in early 2026.
Thooyamalli Rice (Tamil Nadu): Native to the Cauvery delta, known for its “pearl-like” appearance.
Woraiyur Cotton Sari (Tamil Nadu): Woven in the Tiruchi district on the banks of the Cauvery.

Summary Mapping Checklist

Category	Mapping Highlight	Key Location
58th Tiger Reserve	Madhav Tiger Reserve	Shivpuri, MP
96th Ramsar Site	Siliserh Lake	Alwar, Rajasthan
Deep-Sea Hub	Central Indian Ocean Basin	South of the Equator
New Dairy GI	Kaladi	Udhampur, J&K

Mapping Brief

BIODIVERSITY & BLUE ECONOMY

DEEP OCEAN MISSION

Resource Exploration (CIOB)

Mapping a 75,000 sq km area in the Central Indian Ocean Basin for Polymetallic Nodules rich in Manganese and Cobalt at depths exceeding 5,000 meters.

MARITIME TECHNOLOGY

Samudrayaan & Matsya 6000

Initial trials off the Chennai Coast mark India’s manned submersible capability. Strategic mapping focuses on Hydrothermal Sulphide sites along mid-oceanic ridges.

GI TAG ENTRIES (2026)

From the dairy specialty Kaladi of Jammu to the pearl-like Thooyamalli Rice of the Cauvery Delta, regional geography gains new economic identities.

58TH RESERVE Madhav (Shivpuri, MP).

सीसैट परीक्षा में पूछे गए वास्तविक प्रश्नों का नियमित अभ्यास करें।