IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 29 Jan 2026
NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-3 (Ruling the Countryside)
Chapter 3, “Ruling the Countryside,” describes how the English East India Company established its control over the rural economy of India and the impact of its revenue policies on the peasantry.
1. The Company Becomes the Diwan
On August 12, 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal.
- Financial Administration: As Diwan, the Company became the chief financial administrator of the territory under its control.
- Revenue Needs: It had to organize revenue resources to yield enough profit to meet growing military and administrative expenses.
- Trade Shift: Before 1865, the Company imported gold and silver from Britain to buy goods; after receiving Diwani rights, the revenue collected in Bengal financed the purchase of goods for export.
2. The Need to Improve Agriculture
The Bengal economy faced a deep crisis, culminating in a terrible famine in 1770 that killed ten million people. To ensure a steady flow of revenue, the Company introduced new land settlement systems:
- The Permanent Settlement (1793): Introduced by Lord Cornwallis, this system fixed the land revenue permanently.
- Rajas and Taluqdars: They were recognized as zamindars and made responsible for collecting rent from peasants and paying revenue to the Company.
- Impact: Zamindars often failed to pay the high fixed revenue and lost their land. Peasants found the system oppressive as they had no security on the land and the rent was very high.
- The Mahalwari System (1822): Devised by Holt Mackenzie for the North-Western Provinces of Bengal.
- Mahal: Revenue was collected from the village or a group of villages called a mahal.
- Village Headman: Instead of the zamindar, the village headman was made responsible for collecting revenue and paying it to the Company.
- The Ryotwari System (Munro System): Developed by Captain Alexander Read and Thomas Munro in South India.
- Direct Settlement: Revenue was settled directly with the actual cultivators (ryots) who had tilled the land for generations.
Comparison of Land Revenue Systems
| Feature | Permanent Settlement | Mahalwari System | Ryotwari (Munro) System |
| Introduced By | Lord Cornwallis (1793) | Holt Mackenzie (1822) | Thomas Munro and Alexander Read |
| Primary Region | Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa | North-Western Provinces of Bengal Presidency | Southern India (Madras and Bombay Presidencies) |
| Unit of Assessment | The individual Zamindar | The Mahal (village or group of villages) | The Ryot (individual cultivator) |
| Revenue Payer | The Zamindar (Rajas and Taluqdars) | The Village Headman | The individual Peasant (Ryot) |
| Nature of Revenue | Fixed permanently; never to be increased in the future | Revised periodically; not fixed permanently | Revised periodically after careful field surveys |
| Ownership Rights | Zamindars were recognized as owners of the land | Ownership often remained with the village community | Ryots were recognized as the ancestral owners/tillers of the land |
| Role of Intermediaries | High; Zamindars acted as intermediaries between the state and peasants | Moderate; Village headmen collected revenue | Minimum; Direct settlement between the state and the cultivator |
3. Crops for Europe
The British realized that the countryside could also grow the crops Europe required, such as opium and indigo.
- Demand for Indigo: Indian indigo was highly valued in Europe for its rich blue color. The demand grew in the late 18th century as industrialization increased cloth production in Britain.
- Indigo Production: Two main systems of cultivation existed:
- Nij Cultivation: The planter produced indigo on lands he directly controlled.
- Ryoti System: Planters forced the ryots to sign a contract (satta) and gave them cash advances at low interest to grow indigo on at least 25% of their land.
4. The “Blue Rebellion”
The oppressive nature of indigo cultivation led to a massive uprising in Bengal in March 1859.
- Resistance: Ryots refused to grow indigo, pay rents, and attacked indigo factories.
- Outcome: The government set up the Indigo Commission, which held the planters guilty and declared that ryots could refuse to grow indigo in the future.
- Shift to Bihar: Indigo production collapsed in Bengal and shifted to Bihar, where it eventually faced opposition leading to the Champaran movement led by Mahatma Gandhi in 1917.
Ruling the Countryside
Indigo Commission
Set up after the 1859 rebellion; it declared indigo production was not profitable for ryots.
Nij Cultivation
Indigo production where planters directly controlled the land with hired laborers.
Champaran
The location in Bihar where Mahatma Gandhi led a movement against indigo planters in 1917.
Class-8 History Chapter-3 PDF
Complete Study Notes: Ruling the Countryside
⚖️Indian Polity: The Prime Minister (Art 74-75, 78): Appointment, Powers & Role
In the Indian parliamentary system, while the President is the Nominal Head (De Jure), the Prime Minister is the Real Executive (De Facto). For your website, these detailed notes cover the legal framework (Articles 74, 75, and 78) that defines the most powerful office in the country.
The Prime Minister of India: The Real Executive
The Prime Minister (PM) is the Head of Government and the primary architect of the nation’s policies.
1. Appointment and Tenure (Article 75)
- Appointment: The Constitution simply states that the President shall appoint the Prime Minister. By convention, the President must appoint the leader of the party (or coalition) that commands a majority in the Lok Sabha.
- Discretionary Power: If no party has a clear majority, the President may use personal discretion to appoint the leader of the largest party/coalition and ask them to prove their majority within a specific period (usually one month).
- Eligibility:
- Must be a citizen of India.
- Must be a member of either the Lok Sabha (min. age 25) or Rajya Sabha (min. age 30).
- A non-member can be appointed but must secure a seat in either House within 6 months.
- Tenure: The PM holds office during the pleasure of the President. However, this doesn’t mean the President can dismiss them at will; as long as the PM enjoys a majority in the Lok Sabha, they cannot be removed.
2. Aid and Advice (Article 74)
This article defines the relationship between the President and the Council of Ministers (COM).
- The Rule: There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President.
- Binding Nature: The President must act in accordance with such advice. However, the President can ask the Council to reconsider the advice once; after reconsideration, the President is bound by the second advice.
- Confidentiality: The nature of the advice given by Ministers to the President cannot be inquired into by any court.
3. Duties of the Prime Minister (Article 78)
Article 78 acts as the constitutional bridge between the President and the Cabinet. It is the duty of the PM:
- To Communicate: All decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration and legislative proposals to the President.
- To Furnish Information: To provide any administrative or legislative information that the President may call for.
- To Submit for Consideration: If the President so requires, the PM must submit for the consideration of the Council any matter on which a decision has been taken by a Minister but has not been considered by the Council.
3. Powers and Functions of the Prime Minister
The powers of the Prime Minister can be categorized based on his/her relationship with different wings of the government.
A. In Relation to the Council of Ministers
The PM is the “keystone of the cabinet arch”:
- Recommendation: He recommends persons who can be appointed as ministers by the President.
- Portfolio Allocation: He allocates and reshuffles various portfolios among the ministers.
- Presiding Authority: He presides over the meetings of the Council of Ministers and influences their decisions.
- Guidance: He guides, directs, controls, and coordinates the activities of all the ministers.
- Resignation: Since the PM is the head, his resignation or death automatically leads to the dissolution of the Council of Ministers.
B. In Relation to the President (Article 78)
The PM serves as the principal channel of communication between the President and the Council of Ministers:
- Reporting: To communicate to the President all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union.
- Furnishing Information: To furnish such information relating to the administration as the President may call for.
- Advisory Role: He advises the President regarding the appointment of important officials like the Attorney General of India, CAG, Chairman of UPSC, Election Commissioners, etc.
C. In Relation to the Parliament
- Leader of the House: The PM is the leader of the Lower House (Lok Sabha).
- Summoning/Proroguing: He advises the President regarding the summoning and proroguing of the sessions of the Parliament.
- Dissolution: He can recommend the dissolution of the Lok Sabha to the President at any time.
- Policy Statements: He announces the major government policies on the floor of the House.
4. Role of the Prime Minister
The Prime Minister’s role goes beyond just administrative functions; he is the face of the nation.
- Chief Spokesperson: He is the chief spokesperson of the Union Government on national and international platforms.
- Foreign Policy: He plays a significant role in shaping the foreign policy of the country.
- Ex-officio Chairman: He is the ex-officio Chairman of several important bodies:
- NITI Aayog
- National Development Council (NDC)
- National Integration Council
- Inter-State Council
- National Water Resources Council
- Crisis Manager: He is the crisis manager-in-chief at the political level during emergencies.
- Political Head: He is the political head of the services (Civil Services).
5. Key Legal Doctrines
- Collective Responsibility (Art 75): The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. This means the PM and the ministers “swim and sink together.” If a No-Confidence Motion is passed against the PM, the entire cabinet must resign.
- Individual Responsibility: While the President can remove a minister, he does so only on the advice of the Prime Minister. Thus, ministers hold office during the “pleasure of the President,” but that pleasure is essentially the PM’s confidence.
Conclusion
The Prime Minister is the most powerful functionary in the Indian Constitution. While the President is the “Head of the State,” the Prime Minister is the “Head of the Government,” acting as the engine of the executive and the leader of the legislature.
Summary Table
| Article | Keyword | Core Mandate |
| 74 | Advice | PM heads the COM to advise the President (Binding). |
| 75 | Appointment | PM is appointed by the President; collective responsibility. |
| 78 | Information | PM’s duty to keep the President informed. |
Appointment, Powers & Role
Cabinet Keystone
Allocates portfolios, presides over meetings, and coordinates the activities of all ministers.
Ex-officio Chairman
Heads vital bodies including NITI Aayog, National Integration Council, and Inter-State Council.
Collective Responsibility
Ministers are collectively responsible to Lok Sabha; they “swim and sink together” under PM’s leadership.
“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (29-January-2026)
Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 29, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.
1. Mature and Pragmatic: The India-EU Free Trade Agreement
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India; International Relations).
Context: A landmark Free Trade Agreement (FTA) between India and the European Union has been finalized, marking a strategic shift in trade relations during the 16th India-EU Summit.
Key Points:
- Strategic Insurance: The pact is seen as a “geopolitical insurance policy” for both sides against global economic unpredictability and supply chain disruptions.
- Balanced Trade-offs: India has successfully negotiated a deal that protects its domestic dairy and agricultural sectors while gaining better market access for textiles and pharmaceuticals.
- Investment Protection: A separate Investment Protection Agreement (IPA) provides a robust legal framework to protect European investors in India.
- Geographical Indications (GIs): The agreement includes strong protections for GIs, ensuring that traditional products like Darjeeling tea or Feta cheese are protected from imitation.
UPSC Relevance: Essential for “India-EU Strategic Partnership,” “Global Trade Dynamics,” and “Bilateral Investment Treaties.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM): While the FTA is signed, India remains concerned about the EU’s carbon tax, which it views as a non-tariff barrier. Both sides have agreed to a “joint monitoring mechanism” to address these concerns.
- Sovereign Choices: The editorial emphasizes that the deal is a victory for “strategic autonomy,” showing that two major democratic blocs can reach an agreement without outside interference.
- Digital Cooperation: The pact lays the groundwork for data adequacy and cooperation in high-tech sectors like AI and semiconductors, which were previously separate from trade talks.
2. Tension Escalates: Time is ‘Running Out’ for Iran
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests).
Context: U.S. President Trump has issued a severe warning to Iran regarding its nuclear program, threatening “total consequences” if enrichment activities are not halted immediately.
Key Points:
- Nuclear Threshold: Trump claimed Iran is on the verge of developing a nuclear weapon, a “red line” for the current U.S. administration.
- Economic Blockade: The U.S. has threatened 25% extra tariffs on any country—including India—that continues to trade with Iran, specifically targeting oil and mineral exports.
- Diplomatic Isolation: The U.S. is pressuring European allies to “snap back” UN sanctions, potentially ending the remains of the 2015 nuclear deal (JCPOA).
- Impact on Chabahar: Increased tensions threaten the operational stability of the Chabahar Port, where India has significant strategic and financial investments.
UPSC Relevance: Vital for understanding “West Asian Geopolitics,” “U.S. Sanctions and India,” and “Nuclear Non-Proliferation.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Global Oil Volatility: Any military or economic escalation in the Persian Gulf is expected to spike global crude prices, directly impacting India’s fiscal deficit and the value of the Rupee.
- Strategic Autonomy under Strain: India faces a difficult choice between its strategic energy partnership with Iran and the threat of trade penalties from its largest trading partner, the U.S.
3. IIP Growth Quickens to 7.8% in December
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Mobilization of resources; Growth and development).
Context: India’s Index of Industrial Production (IIP) surged to a 26-month high in December 2025, signaling a robust recovery in manufacturing.
Key Points:
- Manufacturing Lead: The manufacturing sector, which has the highest weight in IIP, grew by 8.2%, driven by electronics and transport equipment.
- Capital Goods Growth: A double-digit growth in capital goods suggests that private investment is finally picking up pace after a long period of stagnation.
- Consumer Durables: Increased demand for consumer durables indicates a strengthening of urban consumption ahead of the 2026-27 Union Budget.
- Mining and Electricity: Mining grew by 5.4%, while electricity generation saw a 6.1% increase, reflecting higher industrial activity.
UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Economic Indicators,” “Manufacturing Sector Performance,” and “Investment Trends.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Policy Stimulus: The editorial attributes this growth partly to the delayed impact of the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes in the electronics sector.
- Budgetary Expectations: This positive data provides the government with more fiscal space to focus on infrastructure and rural demand in the upcoming Union Budget.
4. Stray Canines: SC Dissatisfied with Animal Birth Control Efforts
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Important aspects of governance; Social Sector/Health) and GS Paper 1 (Social Issues).
Context: The Supreme Court has expressed strong dissatisfaction with the implementation of animal birth control (ABC) programs across various states amidst rising cases of dog attacks.
Key Points:
- Implementation Gap: The Court noted that despite the Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023, local bodies have failed to conduct systematic sterilization and vaccination.
- Human-Animal Conflict: The Bench emphasized that while animal rights are important, the “right to life and safety” of citizens, particularly children and the elderly, must be paramount.
- Funding Accountability: The SC has sought a detailed report from the Centre on the funds allocated to states and how they have been utilized by municipal corporations.
- Data Disparity: There is a lack of reliable data on the actual population of stray canines, making policy interventions ineffective.
UPSC Relevance: Important for “Governance and Public Safety,” “Local Body Accountability,” and “Ethics in Animal Rights.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Urban Governance Failure: The editorial highlights that the stray dog crisis is a symptom of poor waste management in Indian cities, which provides “food security” for stray packs.
- Legal Liability: The Court is considering whether local authorities should be held financially liable for compensation to victims of dog attacks.
5. Abysmal Failure: The Kolkata Warehouse Fire
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Important aspects of governance; Government policies and interventions) and GS Paper 3 (Disaster Management).
Context: A devastating fire in two large warehouses in Anandpur, Kolkata, on the eve of Republic Day resulted in at least 11 deaths and highlighted systemic failures in urban safety.
Key Points:
- Illegal Structures: The State fire department confirmed that the warehouses, covering 12,000 sq. ft, were not approved for fire safety and lacked any basic safety features.
- Vulnerable Victims: The deceased were primarily migrant workers from Purba Medinipur who were using these makeshift, flammable structures as night shelters.
- Administrative Apathy: The editorial criticizes the “reticent” response from state agencies and the lack of an official visit to the site by the Chief Minister, suggesting a desire to downplay the tragedy ahead of elections.
- Compounding Risks: The fire raged until Tuesday afternoon, requiring 12 engines, which underscored the lack of planning for structures built in ecologically sensitive areas.
UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Urban Governance,” “Industrial Safety Norms,” and “Social Security for Migrant Workers.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Civic Decay: The occurrence of such large, unapproved structures in what was once India’s foremost city is described as a “telling indictment” of the abysmal state of current civic administration.
- Safety Normalization: The piece warns that devastating fires are becoming a “disturbingly routine phenomenon” in Kolkata, with a similar hotel fire in Burrabazar claiming 14 lives just last April.
Editorial Analysis
JANUARY 29, 2026U.S. threatens 25% Extra Tariffs on trade partners of Iran. Strategic energy links and Chabahar Port stability under direct pressure.
Manufacturing grows at 8.2%, a 26-month high. Double-digit growth in Capital Goods signals a revival in private investment.
11 deaths highlight illegal industrial structures. Devastating fires becoming Disturbingly Routine due to civic administrative apathy.
Ethics of Safety
Mapping:
Since we have covered the physical, environmental, and basic industrial landscapes, today’s mapping notes focus on Updated Conservation Sites and Strategic Industrial Corridors for 2026.
These are critical for your UPSC & PCS Exams mission, specifically for tracking the latest additions to India’s ecological and economic maps.
1. Latest Ramsar Sites (January 2026 Update)
As of early 2026, India has reached a milestone of 96 Ramsar Sites, making it the 3rd highest in the world.
| New Ramsar Site | State | Key Significance |
| Kopra Reservoir | Chhattisgarh | One of the most recent additions (late 2025); vital for migratory birds near Bilaspur. |
| Siliserh Lake | Rajasthan | Designated in late 2025; located in Alwar, it’s a critical freshwater habitat. |
| Gogabeel Lake | Bihar | India’s 94th site; a major oxbow lake in the Ganga-Koshi system. |
| Nanjarayan Sanctuary | Tamil Nadu | Located in the Cauvery basin; supports the Central Asian Flyway. |
Mapping Tip: Tamil Nadu currently leads the country with 20 Ramsar sites, followed by Uttar Pradesh (10). Bihar and Odisha follow with 6 each.
2. Biosphere Reserves (BR) & UNESCO Network
India maintains 18 Biosphere Reserves, with 13 now recognized under UNESCO’s World Network.
- Cold Desert (HP): Recognized by UNESCO in 2025; protects the Snow Leopard and Himalayan Ibex.
- Nilgiri BR (TN/KL/KN): The first BR (1986); contains the Silent Valley and Bandipur parks.
- Great Rann of Kutch (GJ): India’s largest biosphere reserve.
- Dibru-Saikhowa (AS): India’s smallest biosphere reserve.
3. Strategic Industrial Corridors (NICDP 2026)
The National Industrial Corridor Development Programme is creating a “unified spatial backbone” for India’s growth.
| Corridor | Core Route / Backbone | Mapping Strategic Nodes |
| DMIC | Delhi-Mumbai (1,504 km) | Dholera (GJ), AURIC (MH), Greater Noida (UP). |
| AKIC | Amritsar-Kolkata | Gaya (BR), Khurpia (UK), Rajpura (PB). |
| CBIC | Chennai-Bengaluru | Krishnapatnam (AP), Tumakuru (KN). |
| ECEC | East Coast Economic Corridor | Vizag-Chennai (Phase 1); follows NH-5. |
4. Infrastructure Highlights: 2026 Strategic Points
- Mig La Pass (Ladakh): Recently opened at 19,400 feet, it is now the world’s highest motorable pass, surpassing Umling La.
- Chenab Railway Bridge (J&K): The world’s tallest rail bridge (359m); provides all-weather connectivity to the Kashmir Valley.
- Navi Mumbai Airport: India’s first airport connected by water taxi.
Summary Mapping Checklist
| Feature | Mapping Highlight | Key Location |
| Latest BR (UNESCO) | Cold Desert | Himachal Pradesh. |
| Highest Motorway | Mig La Pass | Ladakh. |
| Smallest BR | Dibru-Saikhowa | Assam. |
| Wetland Leader | Tamil Nadu | 20 Ramsar Sites. |
Mapping Brief
CONSERVATION & STRATEGIC CORRIDORSThe DMIC (Delhi-Mumbai) links nodes like Dholera and AURIC. The AKIC (Amritsar-Kolkata) integrates Gaya and Rajpura into a massive eastern economic artery.
Mig La Pass (Ladakh) is now the world’s highest motorway at 19,400ft. The Chenab Rail Bridge provides the tallest structural link to the Kashmir Valley.
The ECEC (East Coast) Phase 1 focuses on the Vizag-Chennai axis, utilizing NH-5 for rapid port-led industrialization.