NCERT History: Class 6 Chapter-7 (New Questions and Ideas)

Here are detailed notes on the emergence of new religious and philosophical ideas in India approximately 2,500 years ago.

The Story of the Buddha

The Buddha was the founder of Buddhism and lived during a time of rapid social change.

• Early Life: Born as Siddhartha (also known as Gautama) about 2500 years ago into the Sakya gana.
• Renunciation: He was a kshatriya who left the comforts of home as a young man to seek the true meaning of life.
• Enlightenment: After years of wandering and discussion, he meditated under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment.
• Teaching: He gave his first sermon at Sarnath (near Varanasi) and spent the rest of his life traveling on foot until he passed away at Kusinara.
• Core Philosophy:
  • Taught that life is full of suffering caused by constant cravings and desires, termed tanha (thirst).
  • Advocated for moderation in everything to remove these cravings.
  • Stressed the importance of karma, believing our actions affect us in both this life and the next.
  • Used Prakrit, the language of the masses, so his message was accessible to all.

Upanishads and Indian Philosophy

Around the same time, other thinkers explored difficult questions about life after death and the purpose of sacrifices.

• Atman and Brahman: These thinkers believed in a permanent soul (atman) and a universal soul (brahman), concluding that the two were ultimately one.
• The Texts: Their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads, which literally means “approaching and sitting near”. These texts usually consist of dialogues between teachers and students.
• Participants: While most thinkers were brahmins or rajas, some women like Gargi were famous for their learning. Satyakama Jabala, the son of a slave woman, also became a renowned thinker after being accepted by a brahmin teacher named Gautama.
• Six Schools of Philosophy: India’s intellectual exploration is represented by six systems: Vaishesika, Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimansa, and Vedanta.

Jainism and Mahavira

Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, spread his message around the same time as the Buddha.

• Background: He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis (part of the Vajji sangha) who left home at age 30 to live in the forest.
• Core Doctrine: Mahavira taught that those seeking truth must leave their homes and strictly follow ahimsa (non-violence/not hurting living beings).
• Way of Life: Followers (Jainas) had to lead simple lives, beg for food, be absolutely honest(not stealing), and observe celibacy. Men were often required to give up everything, including clothes.
• Spread: Jainism was primarily supported by traders; farmers found the strict rules against killing insects harder to follow because they had to kill insects to protect crops.

The Sangha and Monasteries

Both Mahavira and the Buddha believed true knowledge could only be gained by those who left their homes.

• The Sangha: An association for those who renounced the world.
  • The rules for the Buddhist sangha were recorded in the Vinaya Pitaka.
  • Members were called bhikkhus and bhikkhunis (Prakrit for beggars).
  • Participants included various social groups: brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, and even slaves (with permission).
• Monasteries (Viharas): Initially, monks traveled constantly, except during the rainy season. Eventually, permanent shelters called viharas were built of wood, brick, or carved out of rock (such as the Karle caves).

The System of Ashramas

While Jainism and Buddhism grew, brahmins developed a framework for the four stages of life, known as ashramas:

Ashrama	Expected Lifestyle
Brahmacharya	Simple life and study of the Vedas.
Grihastha	Marriage and living as a householder.
Vanaprastha	Living in the forest and meditating.
Samnyasa	Giving up everything to become a samnyasin.

---

⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 12, 13, and 14

The Constitution of India, through Part III, guarantees Fundamental Rights to its citizens and, in some cases, to all persons. However, before exploring specific rights like freedom of speech or religion, it is essential to understand the framework that governs them. Article 12 defines against whom these rights are enforced; Article 13 ensures the supremacy of these rights over other laws; and Article 14 establishes the core principle of equality that binds the nation.

1. Article 12: Defining the “State”

Fundamental Rights are primarily protections against the arbitrary use of power by the government. Therefore, Article 12 defines the term “State” specifically for Part III of the Constitution.

Components of the State

According to Article 12, the State includes:

• The Government and Parliament of India: The Executive and Legislative organs of the Union (e.g., Ministries, President, Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha).
• The Government and Legislature of States: The Executive and Legislative organs of each State (e.g., Vidhan Sabha, Governor).
• Local Authorities: Statutory bodies like Municipalities, Panchayats, Improvement Trusts, and District Boards.
• Other Authorities: This is the most debated category, interpreted widely by the Judiciary.

The “Instrumentality” Test

The Supreme Court, in cases like R.D. Shetty v. International Airport Authority and Ajay Hasia v. Khalid Mujib, established that even private bodies or corporations can be considered “State” if they act as an instrumentality or agency of the government.

Criteria for “Other Authorities”:

1. Entire share capital is held by the Government.
2. Financial assistance from the State is so large it meets almost the entire expenditure.
3. The body enjoys monopoly status conferred or protected by the State.
4. Existence of deep and pervasive State control.
5. Functions are of public importance and closely related to governmental functions.

Note: Bodies like LIC, ONGC, and SAIL are considered “State,” whereas the BCCI and NCERT have generally been excluded based on these tests.

2. Article 13: Shield of the Constitution

Article 13 is the “gatekeeper” of Fundamental Rights. It gives the Judiciary the power of Judicial Review, allowing courts to strike down laws that violate the Constitution.

Key Provisions

• Article 13(1): Deals with Pre-Constitutional Laws. It states that all laws in force in India before 1950, if inconsistent with Fundamental Rights, become void to the extent of that inconsistency.
• Article 13(2): Deals with Post-Constitutional Laws. It prohibits the State from making any law that takes away or abridges Fundamental Rights.
• Article 13(3): Defines “Law” very broadly. It includes not just Acts of Parliament, but also:
  • Ordinances
  • Orders, Bye-laws, Rules, and Regulations
  • Notifications
  • Customs or usages having the force of law.

Constitutional Doctrines arising from Article 13

1. Doctrine of Severability: If a law has valid and invalid parts, the court will only strike down the invalid portion. If the valid part cannot survive without the invalid part, the whole law is declared void.
2. Doctrine of Eclipse: A pre-constitutional law that violates Fundamental Rights isn’t dead; it’s simply “eclipsed” (hidden). If a constitutional amendment later removes the conflict, the law becomes active again.
3. Doctrine of Waiver: A person cannot waive (give up) their Fundamental Rights, as these are provided for the public interest, not just individual benefit (Basheshar Nath v. Income Tax Commissioner).

3. Article 14: The Right to Equality

Article 14 is the heart of the Indian Constitution. It guarantees: “The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.”

Two Pillars of Equality

Article 14 uses two distinct phrases to ensure comprehensive justice:

Equality Before Law	Equal Protection of Laws
Derived from British Common Law.	Derived from the American Constitution.
A negative concept: Absence of special privileges for any individual.	A positive concept: The State must act to ensure equality of treatment in equal circumstances.
Implies that no man is above the law.	Implies “Like should be treated alike.”
Focuses on the Rule of Law.	Focuses on Substantive Equality.

The Concept of “Reasonable Classification”

Article 14 forbids class legislation (giving a specific group a benefit for no reason) but permits reasonable classification. Since people are in different socio-economic positions, the law cannot treat everyone exactly the same.

The “Old Test” for Classification:

1. Intelligible Differentia: There must be a clear difference between the groups being treated differently.
2. Rational Nexus: The difference must have a logical connection to the goal the law wants to achieve.

The “New Doctrine” (Arbitrariness):
In E.P. Royappa v. State of Tamil Nadu, the Supreme Court expanded Article 14, stating that “Equality is antithetical to arbitrariness.” If an action by the State is arbitrary, unfair, or lacks reason, it violates Article 14.

Summary Table

Article	Key Focus	Role in Democracy
12	Definition of State	Identifies the entities bound by Fundamental Rights.
13	Judicial Review	Protects Fundamental Rights from being diluted by new or old laws.
14	Right to Equality	Ensures fairness and prevents discrimination and arbitrary State action.

---