IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 5 Jan 2026
NCERT History: Class 6 Chapter-4 (In the Earliest Cities)
Here is a detailed and comprehensive breakdown of Chapter 4, “In the Earliest Cities,” covering the history, lifestyle, and architecture of the Harappan civilization.
1. The Discovery of Harappa
- Accidental Discovery: Nearly 150 years ago, engineers laying railway lines in the Punjab stumbled upon the site of Harappa.
- Loss of Heritage: Thinking it was a rich source of ready-made bricks, they carried off thousands of bricks, which destroyed many original buildings.
- Archaeological Recognition: About 80 years ago, archaeologists realized this was one of the oldest cities in the subcontinent.
- Timeline: These cities developed approximately 4,700 years ago.
2. Masterful City Planning and Architecture
- Two-Part Layout: Most cities were divided into a smaller but higher western part called the citadel and a larger but lower eastern part called the lower town.
- Strong Walls: Each part was surrounded by walls made of baked bricks laid in an interlocking pattern to make them strong.
- The Great Bath (Mohenjodaro): A special tank lined with bricks, coated with plaster, and made water-tight with natural tar. It had steps on two sides and rooms surrounding it.
- Advanced Drainage: Drains were laid out in straight lines with a gentle slope for water flow. They were covered and had inspection holes for regular cleaning.
- Housing: Houses were typically one or two storeys high with rooms built around a central courtyard. Most had separate bathing areas and wells.
3. Life and Work in the City
- Key Occupations:
- Rulers: People who planned the construction of special buildings and organized the collection of resources.
- Scribes: People who knew how to write and helped prepare seals.
- Craftspersons: Men and women making all kinds of things in homes or special workshops.
- Specialized Crafts:
- Stone Weights: Made of chert and precisely shaped to weigh precious metals or stones.
- Beads: Beautiful red carnelian stones were cut, shaped, polished, and bored through to make jewelry.
- Seals: Rectangular stone seals usually featured an animal carving and a script that remains unread today.
- Faience: An artificially produced material used to make beads, bangles, and tiny vessels with a shiny, sea-green glaze.
4. Trade and Raw Materials
The Harappans obtained raw materials from distant places:
- Copper: From present-day Rajasthan and Oman.
- Tin: Brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran to be mixed with copper to make bronze.
- Gold: Likely from present-day Karnataka.
- Precious Stones: From present-day Gujarat, Iran, and Afghanistan.
5. Agriculture and Food
- Crops: They grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed, and mustard.
- The Plough: A new tool used to turn the soil and plant seeds.
- Irrigation: Since the region did not receive heavy rainfall, water was likely stored and supplied to fields.
- Animal Rearing: They reared cattle, sheep, goats, and buffalo.
6. Harappan Towns in Gujarat
- Dholavira: Located in the Rann of Kutch, this city was unique because it was divided into three parts (not two) and had massive stone walls with gateways.
- Lothal: Located near the Gulf of Khambat, it was a center for making items out of shell, stone, and metal. It featured a massive dockyard where ships could load and unload goods.
7. The Mystery of the Decline
Around 3,900 years ago, major changes occurred:
- Signs of Decay: Drainage systems broke down, garbage piled up, and people stopped using writing, seals, and weights.
- Possible Causes: Theories include rivers drying up, deforestation (due to fuel needs for baking bricks), flooding, or rulers losing control.
🧱 In the Earliest Cities
🏗️ City Planning
Cities featured a raised Citadel and a Lower Town. Walls were made of Interlocking Baked Bricks, ensuring durability for 4,700 years.
💧 Engineering Marvels
The Great Bath was made water-tight with Natural Tar. Streets had Covered Drains with a gentle slope and inspection holes.
⚒️ Craft & Trade
Beads of Carnelian and glazed Faience were common. Raw materials like Tin and Gold were imported via the Lothal Dockyard.
🔍 The Mystery
Civilization began to decline 3,900 years ago. Potential causes include Deforestation, flooding, or the Drying of Rivers.
Class-6 History Chapter-4 PDF
Complete Study Notes: In the Earliest Cities
⚖️Indian Polity: Union & its Territory (Article 1-4)
To understand the Union and its Territory in a detailed manner, we must look at Part I of the Constitution of India (Articles 1 to 4). This part defines the identity, scope, and the power of Parliament to reshape the geographical boundaries of the country.
Article 1: Name and Federation Type
Article 1 is the most fundamental as it defines what India is.
- Article 1(1): States that “India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.”
- “Union” vs. “Federation”: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar clarified that India is a “Union” because:
- The Indian federation is not the result of an agreement by states (unlike the US).
- No state has the right to secede (leave) from the Union.
- Article 1(3) – The Territory of India: This includes three categories:
- Territories of the States: The states mentioned in the First Schedule (e.g., Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat).
- Union Territories: Territories managed directly by the central government.
- Acquired Territories: Territories that India might acquire in the future (e.g., through treaty or purchase).
Article 2: Admission of New Territories
This article gives the Parliament the power to admit new states into the Union that were not previously part of India.
- Admission: Refers to the admission of an existing state (like the historical admission of Sikkim).
- Establishment: Refers to creating a state in a territory where none existed before.
Article 3: Internal Reorganization of States
While Article 2 deals with external territories, Article 3 gives Parliament total authority over the internal map of India.
Parliament’s Powers under Article 3:
- Form a new state: By separating territory from an existing state or joining two states.
- Increase/Decrease the area: Change the physical size of any state.
- Alter Boundaries: Change the border lines between states.
- Change the Name: For example, changing ‘Orissa’ to ‘Odisha’ or ‘Pondicherry’ to ‘Puducherry’.
The Conditions (Procedure):
- Presidential Recommendation: A bill for these changes can only be introduced with the President’s prior permission.
- State Views: The President must refer the bill to the concerned State Legislature to get their opinion within a set time.
- Parliament is Supreme: Parliament is not bound by the views of the State Legislature. It can accept or reject their suggestions.
Article 4: The Legal Status of Changes
This article ensures that changes made under Articles 2 and 3 are easy to implement.
- Simple Majority: Laws for creating new states or changing names do not require a Constitutional Amendment under Article 368. They can be passed like any ordinary law.
- Automatic Changes: Such laws automatically allow for the amendment of the First Schedule (list of states) and the Fourth Schedule (allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha).
Evolution of the Union: A Summary Table
| Phase | Key Event / Committee | Outcome |
| 1948 | Dhar Commission | Recommended reorganization based on administrative convenience, not language. |
| 1949 | JVP Committee | Rejected language as the basis for states. |
| 1953 | Creation of Andhra | First state created on a linguistic basis (after Potti Sreeramulu’s death). |
| 1956 | States Reorganisation Act | Reorganized India into 14 States and 6 Union Territories. |
⚖️ Union & Its Territory
📜 Article 1: Nature of Union
India is a Union of States, not a federation by agreement. States have No Right to Secede. Territory includes States, UTs, and Acquired Territories.
🌍 Article 2 & 3: Boundaries
Article 2 admits external territories (e.g. Sikkim). Article 3 allows Parliament to rename, split, or merge Existing States internally.
⚡ Reorganization Process
Requires President’s Recommendation. The State’s view is sought but Not Binding on Parliament. Parliament is supreme in reshaping the internal map.
⚖️ Article 4: Legal Ease
Changes under Art 2 & 3 require only a Simple Majority. They are NOT considered constitutional amendments under Article 368.
“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (05-January-2026)
Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 5, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.
1. The China Paradox: Shifting Stances
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; India and its Neighborhood- Relations).
Context: An analysis of China’s strategic posture at the start of 2026 and its implications for India’s regional security and global standing.
Key Points:
- A National Paradox: China is currently wrestling with deep internal economic challenges while simultaneously projecting strategic confidence and expanding its diplomatic reach abroad.
- Economic Strategy (China Shock 2.0): To offset weak domestic demand, Beijing is doubling down on a state-led model prioritizing “high-quality” exports like electric vehicles, batteries, and semiconductors, which is disrupting global trade.
- Military Assertiveness: The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) continues to expand its conventional and nuclear capabilities, moving toward an “early warning counter-strike” posture.
- India-China Relations: Ties in 2025 saw cautious stabilization but no substantive progress on structural issues; disengagement occurred, but de-escalation is absent, and “buffer zones” continue to restrict India’s patrolling rights.
UPSC Relevance: Essential for questions on “India-China Relations,” “Indo-Pacific Geopolitics,” and “Strategic Autonomy”.
Detailed Analysis:
- The Inward Turn: Domestic demand in China remained weak in 2025, and the overbuilt property sector continued to weigh on confidence. Beijing has reinforced a state-led model instead of boosting consumption, prioritizing advanced manufacturing and Artificial Intelligence.
- Impact on India: China’s dominance in global value chains has expanded the trade deficit, expected to exceed $110 billion in 2025, and intensified vulnerabilities in sectors like pharmaceuticals and electronics.
- Strategic Outlook: India must pursue calibrated engagement to reduce immediate risks while strengthening asymmetric deterrence and accelerating domestic industrial capabilities. The article suggests India must be “strategically patient” and prepared for a long haul.
2. Security Camps: The Game Changer in Maoist Fight
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Internal Security; Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security).
Context: An analysis of how the establishment of security camps in remote areas has significantly curbed Left-Wing Extremism (LWE).
Key Points:
- Statistical Decline: Maoist-related violence reduced by almost 90% from 2010 to 2025.
- Reduction in Affected Area: The number of LWE-affected districts fell from 126 in 2018 to only 11 by October 2025.
- Role of Camps: Security camps have enhanced the security footprint, reduced reaction time, and improved human intelligence (HUMINT) for the forces.
- Infrastructure Growth: These camps acted as hubs for road construction and mobile towers, transforming local lifestyles.
UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Internal Security Challenges,” “LWE and Development,” and “Governance in Tribal Areas”.
Detailed Analysis:
- Psychological Shift: The local population witnessed security forces gaining an upper hand, leading to a psychological setback for the Maoists. People are now more assured that their welfare comes from the government.
- Civil Administration Reach: The civil administration has piggy-backed on the support provided by these camps. Collectors, tehsildars, and patwaris are now reaching populations that previously only saw policemen or forest guards.
- Future Challenges: Sustainable peace can only be achieved if structural issues are addressed through the implementation of constitutional guarantees like the PESA Act and Forest Rights Act.
3. Counting Women’s Labour: A Policy Shift
Syllabus: GS Paper 1 (Social Issues; Role of women and women’s organization) & GS Paper 3 (Economy; Growth, development, and employment).
Context: A discussion on the systemic devaluation of women’s unpaid care and emotional labour and the need for institutional recognition.
Key Points:
- The Care Gap: A 2023 UN report showed that globally, women spend 2.8 more hours than men on unpaid care and domestic work.
- Policy Bias: Economic priorities have marginalized care work by framing it as secondary to “productive” labour traditionally performed by men.
- Institutional Recognition: Few countries have laws recognizing this work; for example, Article 338 of the Bolivian Constitution recognizes work at home as an economic activity producing social welfare.
- Indian Judicial Stance: In Kannaian Naidu vs Kamsala Ammal (2023), the Madras High Court ruled that a wife’s household duties contribute to family assets, entitling her to an equal share in property.
UPSC Relevance: Key for “Women Empowerment,” “Gender Budgeting,” and “Inclusive Growth”.
Detailed Analysis:
- Structural Barriers: Focus on GDP growth and physical infrastructure investment over social infrastructure contributes to the systemic devaluation of care-related work.
- Invisible Labour: The uncounted emotional and mental labour in sustaining families is rarely measured or rewarded in policy frameworks.
- Necessity of Change: Recognizing women’s labour must be accompanied by a structural reconfiguration where men actively participate in and co-shoulder care responsibilities.
4. Disaster Risk Finance in Emerging Asia
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Disaster Management; Economic impact of natural disasters).
Context: Data showing that India sustains significant economic losses annually due to natural disasters, necessitating a shift toward disaster risk finance.
Key Points:
- Economic Impact: From 1990 to 2024, India sustained average annual disaster-related losses equivalent to 0.4% of its GDP.
- Nature of Threats: India’s vulnerability is primarily hydrological (floods and landslides), whereas countries like China and Indonesia face higher seismic risks.
- High Risk Ranking: Among Asian economies, India ranks second only to the Philippines in the World Risk Index 2025.
UPSC Relevance: Crucial for “Disaster Management Strategies” and “Economic Impact of Climate Change”.
Detailed Analysis:
- The Regional Threat: Emerging Asian economies face an escalating threat from disasters growing in both frequency and intensity. Over the past decade, the region averaged 100 disasters annually, impacting approximately 80 million people.
- Defining Risk: The World Risk Index calculates risk as a geometric mean of exposure (population burden) and vulnerability, which includes structural susceptibility and coping capacity.
- Policy Imperative: As economic losses escalate, disaster risk finance has moved to the forefront of regional policy to design effective, data-driven responses.
5. ‘Aeronautics 2047’: Pursuing Technological Sovereignty
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Security; Indigenization of technology and developing new technology).
Context: A national seminar in Bengaluru celebrating 25 years of the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas and outlining future goals.
Key Points:
- Tejas Milestone: The ADA has completed 25 years of flight for the LCA Tejas, which has undergone over 5,600 successful flight trials.
- Indigenous Niche Technologies: Development of niche technologies like carbon composites, light-weight materials, fly-by-wire flight control, and digital utility management systems has made Tejas a 4th-generation fighter.
- Import Independence: The goal of “Aeronautics 2047” is to develop cutting-edge indigenous technology to minimize dependence on foreign imports.
UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Defense Indigenization,” “Make in India in Defense,” and “National Security.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Operational Readiness: The Chief of Air Staff emphasized that adhering to delivery timelines is as critical as technological development to keep the IAF operationally ready.
- Future Frontiers: The focus is shifting toward next-generation aircraft, digital manufacturing, and the integration of Artificial Intelligence in aircraft design.
- Ecosystem Building: The programme has successfully associated over 100 design centres, including academic institutes and private industries, creating a robust domestic aerospace ecosystem.
Editorial Analysis
Jan 05, 2026GS-2 IR
🇨🇳 The China Paradox & “Shock 2.0”
Beijing is countering domestic weakness with aggressive High-Quality Exports (EVs, Semiconductors). Impact: India’s trade deficit likely to cross $110 Billion in 2025. Strategy: “Strategic Patience” and asymmetric deterrence.
GS-3 Security
🛡️ LWE: The Security Camp Revolution
Maoist violence plummeted 90% since 2010. Affected districts down to only 11 in 2025. Security camps have evolved into hubs for civil administration, roads, and digital connectivity in “grey zones.”
GS-1 Society
👩🍳 The Invisible Economy of Care
Women spend 2.8x more hours on unpaid care than men. Critical shift: Madras HC (2023) recognized household duties as an economic contribution to family assets. Policy need: Moving from GDP-centric to Care-inclusive growth.
GS-3 Disaster
🌊 Disaster Risk Finance (DRF)
India loses 0.4% of GDP annually to natural disasters. Ranked 2nd highest in Asia for risk. Shift required: Transitioning from reactive relief to proactive, data-driven disaster risk financing and coping capacity.
GS-3 Indig.
✈️ Aeronautics 2047: Tejas & Beyond
LCA Tejas marks 25 years with 5,600+ flight trials. Focus is now on 5th-gen tech and AI integration. Goal: “Technological Sovereignty” to eliminate import reliance in the aerospace ecosystem by 2047.
Mapping:
To understand the geography of the earliest cities, we must look at how the Harappan civilization was inextricably linked to its river systems. These cities developed about 4,700 years ago in the fertile plains of the Indus and its tributaries.
Major Harappan Sites and Their Rivers
1. Harappa (On the Ravi River)
- Location: Harappa is located in present-day Pakistan, specifically in the Punjab region.
- Discovery: It was the first city of this civilization to be discovered, leading archaeologists to describe all similar sites as “Harappan”.
- Significance: Engineers originally found the site nearly 150 years ago while laying railway lines, accidentally using its high-quality ancient bricks for construction.
2. Mohenjo-daro (On the Indus River)
- Location: This site is situated in the Sind province of present-day Pakistan along the main Indus River.
- Architecture: It is famous for the Great Bath, a waterproof tank lined with bricks and natural tar.
- Urban Life: Excavations here revealed advanced drainage systems where house drains connected to larger street drains.
3. Kalibangan (On the Ghaggar River)
- Location: Located in present-day Rajasthan, India.
- River Context: It sat along the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system (often associated with the ancient Sarasvati).
- Special Features: Unlike some other cities, Kalibangan (along with Lothal) featured fire altars, which suggest that religious sacrifices may have been performed there.
River Mapping
Site: Harappa
🧱 Punjab Frontier
Located in Sahiwal district of Pakistan. This city relied on the fertile floodplains of the Ravi River for agriculture and trade.
Mission: Locate the Ravi River on the map and identify its origin in the Himalayas (Himachal Pradesh) before it flows past Harappa.
Site: Mohenjo-daro
🌊 Sindh Metropolis
The largest city of the IVC, strategically built on the right bank of the massive Indus River, using it as a primary transport artery.
Mission: Find the main course of the Indus River and trace how it connects the northern sites in Punjab to the Arabian Sea.
Site: Kalibangan
🏺 Rajasthan Basin
Famous for fire altars and ploughed fields, this site was nourished by the now-seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra River system.
Mission: Trace the dry bed of the Ghaggar River in Rajasthan and identify its historical association with the lost Sarasvati River.