IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 31 Jan 2026
NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-5 (When People Rebel – 1857 and After)
Chapter 5, “When People Rebel: 1857 and After,” details the causes, events, and consequences of the massive popular uprising against British rule in India.
1. Policies and People
The policies of the East India Company affected different sections of society—kings, queens, peasants, landlords, tribals, and soldiers—in various ways.
- Nawabs Lose Power: Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas lost their authority and honor as British Residents were stationed in courts and territories were annexed.
- The Case of Awadh: In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh, and it was finally annexed in 1856 on grounds of “misgovernment”.
- Peasants and Zamindars: In the countryside, peasants and zamindars resented the high taxes and rigid methods of revenue collection.
- The Indian Sepoys: Sepoys were unhappy about their pay, allowances, and service conditions. Some rules violated their religious sensibilities, such as the requirement to travel overseas, which many believed would cause them to lose their religion and caste.
2. Responses to Reforms
The British believed that Indian society needed to be reformed.
- Social Laws: Laws were passed to stop the practice of sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows.
- Education: English-language education was actively promoted.
- Religious Changes: After 1830, Christian missionaries were allowed to function freely and even own land. A new law in 1850 made conversion to Christianity easier and allowed converts to inherit ancestral property.
3. A Mutiny Becomes a Popular Rebellion
What began as a military mutiny in May 1857 developed into a widespread rebellion that threatened the British presence in India.
From Meerut to Delhi
- The Incident: On March 29, 1857, Mangal Pandey was hanged for attacking his officers in Barrackpore.
- The Greased Cartridges: Sepoys in Meerut refused to use new cartridges suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs.
- The March: On May 10, soldiers in Meerut rebelled, released imprisoned sepoys, and marched to Delhi. They proclaimed the aging Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as their leader.
The Rebellion Spreads
- Regiments Mutiny: One by one, regiments rose up and joined other troops at nodal points like Delhi, Kanpur, and Lucknow.
- Key Leaders:
- Kanpur: Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
- Lucknow: Birjis Qadr, son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah.
- Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai joined the sepoys to fight the British alongside Tantia Tope.
- Bihar: Kunwar Singh, an old zamindar, joined the rebel sepoys.
4. The Company Fights Back
The Company decided to repress the revolt with all its might.
- Recapturing Delhi: Reinforcements were brought from England, and Delhi was recaptured in September 1857.
- Fate of the Emperor: Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court, sentenced to life imprisonment, and sent to a jail in Rangoon with his wife.
- Continued Resistance: Lucknow was taken in March 1858, and Rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed in June 1858. Tantia Tope carried on a guerrilla war but was eventually captured and killed in April 1859.
5. Aftermath and Key Changes
The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 to ensure more responsible management of Indian affairs.
- Transfer of Power: Powers of the East India Company were transferred to the British Crown. A member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India.
- Governor-General: The title of the Governor-General was changed to Viceroy, representing the Crown.
- Ruling Chiefs: Ruling chiefs were assured that their territory would never be annexed in the future, provided they acknowledged the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount.
- Military Reorganization: The proportion of Indian soldiers was reduced, and the number of European soldiers was increased. Recruitment shifted toward Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Pathans.
- Religious Respect: The British promised to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India.
Key Leaders of the 1857 Rebellion
| Leader | Region/Location | Role and Key Actions |
| Bahadur Shah Zafar | Delhi | The aging Mughal Emperor who was proclaimed the leader of the rebellion by the sepoys. His support gave the uprising symbolic legitimacy. |
| Nana Saheb | Kanpur | The adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao II. He expelled the British garrison from Kanpur and proclaimed himself Peshwa under the Mughal Emperor. |
| Rani Lakshmibai | Jhansi | Joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British vigorously to reclaim her kingdom after it was annexed. She was supported by Tantia Tope. |
| Birjis Qadr | Lucknow | The son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. He was proclaimed the new Nawab and acknowledged the suzerainty of Bahadur Shah Zafar. |
| Begum Hazrat Mahal | Lucknow | The mother of Birjis Qadr, she took an active part in organizing the uprising against the British in Lucknow. |
| Kunwar Singh | Bihar | An elderly zamindar from Arrah who joined the rebel sepoys and battled the British for many months. |
| Bakht Khan | Delhi | A soldier from Bareilly who took charge of a large force of fighters who came to Delhi and became a key military leader of the rebellion. |
| Ahmadullah Shah | Faizabad | A maulvi who prophesied the end of British rule and led a large force of supporters to Lucknow to fight the British. |
| Tantia Tope | Central India / Jhansi | A close associate of Nana Saheb and a skilled general who led guerrilla warfare against the British even after many major centers had fallen. |
Impact and Consequences
- Military Defeat: Despite the scale of the uprising, the British recaptured Delhi in September 1857 and Lucknow in March 1858.
- End of the Mughals: Bahadur Shah Zafar was captured, tried, and exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862, effectively ending the Mughal dynasty.
- Policy Shift: The British Crown took direct control of India from the East India Company through the Act of 1858.
When People Rebel – 1857 and After
Mangal Pandey
Hanged on March 29, 1857, for attacking his officers in Barrackpore.
Secretary of State
A British Cabinet member appointed in 1858 to manage Indian affairs.
Tantia Tope
Skilled general who led guerrilla warfare until his capture in 1859.
Class-8 History Chapter-5 PDF
Complete Study Notes: When People Rebel – 1857 and After
⚖️Indian Polity: Attorney General of India (Art 76): Appointment, Duties & Rights
The Attorney General (AG) of India is the highest law officer in the country. This office is unique because, while it is a part of the Union Executive, it is a professional legal post rather than a political one.
The Attorney General of India (Article 76)
The Attorney General acts as the Chief Legal Advisor to the Government of India and represents the Union in all legal matters, especially before the Supreme Court.
1. Appointment and Term
- Appointment: The Attorney General is appointed by the President on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
- Qualifications: A person must be qualified to be appointed as a Judge of the Supreme Court. This means:
- They must be a citizen of India.
- They must have been a Judge of a High Court for 5 years OR an Advocate of a High Court for 10 years OR a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.
- Tenure: The Constitution does not fix a specific term for the AG.
- They hold office during the pleasure of the President.
- Traditionally, the AG resigns when the government (Council of Ministers) resigns or is replaced, as they are appointed on its advice.
- Remuneration: Not fixed by the Constitution; determined by the President.
2. Duties and Functions
The primary duty of the AG is to give advice to the Government of India upon legal matters.
- Legal Advice: To advise the Government on legal issues referred by the President.
- Representation: To appear on behalf of the Government of India in all cases in the Supreme Court and any High Court in which the Government is concerned.
- Article 143: To represent the Government of India in any reference made by the President to the Supreme Court under Article 143 (Consultative Jurisdiction).
- Constitutional Duties: To discharge any other functions conferred by the Constitution or any other law.
3. Rights and Privileges
The AG has unique rights that bridge the gap between the Executive and the Legislature:
- Right of Audience: The AG has the right of audience in all courts in the territory of India.
- Parliamentary Participation: The AG has the right to speak and take part in the proceedings of both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) or their joint sittings, and any committee of Parliament of which they may be named a member.
- NO Right to Vote: Despite participating in Parliament, the AG cannot vote.
- Immunities: They enjoy all the privileges and immunities that are available to a Member of Parliament.
4. Limitations
To prevent conflict of interest, the AG is subject to certain restrictions:
- They should not advise or hold a brief against the Government of India.
- They should not defend accused persons in criminal prosecutions without the permission of the Government.
- They should not accept appointment as a director in any company without Government permission.
- Note: The AG is not a full-time counsel for the Government and is not a government servant; therefore, they are not debarred from private legal practice.
Summary Table
| Feature | Detail |
| Article | 76 |
| Highest Post | Chief Law Officer of India |
| Appointed By | President |
| Parliamentary Right | Can speak in both Houses, but No Vote |
| Term | Pleasure of the President (No fixed term) |
| Private Practice | Allowed (Not a government servant) |
Attorney General of India
Right of Audience
Enjoys the right of audience in all courts within the territory of India while performing duties.
Private Practice
Not a full-time government servant; therefore, not debarred from private legal practice.
Immunities
Entitled to all privileges and immunities available to a Member of Parliament (MP).
“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (31-January-2026)
Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 31, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.
1. A Job Well Done: Analysis of Economic Survey 2025-26
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Growth and development; Mobilization of resources).
Context: Chief Economic Adviser (CEA) V. Anantha Nageswaran has presented a stable and ambitious medium-term framework for India’s economy.
Key Points:
- Growth Stability: The Survey paints a favorable picture of India’s economy, projecting growth acceleration past the turbulent pandemic years.
- Global Crisis Risk: It assigns a 10%-20% probability to the global economy descending into a crisis in 2026 worse than the 2008 financial crash.
- Entrepreneurial State: The CEA pushes for a dynamic shift in policymaking, advocating for a state that is more agile, risk-taking, and willing to experiment.
- Fiscal Prudence: While seeking fiscal flexibility for the Centre to address geoeconomic uncertainties, it cautions States against “fiscal populism” and rising revenue deficits.
- Hidden Challenges: The Survey highlights emerging issues like the impact of ethanol production on food security, lack of fodder, and the mental health impact of “compulsive scrolling” on smartphones.
UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Macroeconomic Stability,” “Fiscal Federalism,” and “Economic Planning.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Rupee Fundamentals: The falling rupee is attributed to capital flows toward countries with advanced AI industries and safe-haven assets rather than domestic economic weakness.
- Strategic Indispensability: To overcome structural weaknesses where India is not yet “strategically vital” to supply chains, the Survey focuses on building long-term strategic resilience.
2. Stay the Course: The Debate over Campus Equity Rules
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Education; Social Justice).
Context: The Supreme Court stayed the UGC’s 2026 Promotion of Equity rules, calling them “too sweeping” following protests in northern India.
Key Points:
- Addressing Discrimination: The rules aimed to tackle persisting caste-based discrimination, with UGC figures showing such complaints have more than doubled in five years.
- Institutional Accountability: The new framework mandates equal opportunity centers, equity squads, and time-bound complaint resolution with strict penalties for non-compliance.
- Definitional Friction: Protesters take issue with the definition of caste discrimination focusing only on SC/ST/OBC students, which some argue is unfair to the general category.
- False Complaints: The removal of provisions to act against false complaints from the final draft has become a major point of contention.
UPSC Relevance: Important for “Social Justice in Higher Education,” “Institutional Oversight,” and “Judicial Review.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Balancing Recourse: While caste discrimination almost exclusively targets lower castes, the editorial suggests the Court could consider a broader definition to achieve the overall goal of equity.
- Protecting Complainants: A potential solution is ensuring only complaints proven to be maliciously motivated are actionable, avoiding a “chilling effect” on genuine victims.
3. Green Steel: Shaping India’s Climate Goals
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Environment; Infrastructure; Industrial Policy).
Context: As India revises its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) for COP30, the steel sector emerges as the most critical frontier for decarbonization.
Key Points:
- Cornerstone of Growth: Steel production must more than triple to over 400 million tonnes by mid-century to meet India’s development needs.
- Emission Burden: The sector currently accounts for 12% of India’s carbon emissions due to a heavy reliance on coal.
- Avoiding Carbon Lock-in: Transitioning now is vital to avoid locking in billions of dollars in “carbon inefficient” technologies that could become environmentally and economically disastrous.
- Global Competitiveness: EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) means early movers in green steel will secure access to premium export markets.
UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Climate Change Mitigation,” “Sustainable Industrialization,” and “Energy Transition.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Transition Barriers: Major hurdles include the high cost of green hydrogen, insufficient dedicated renewable energy for industry, and the informal nature of the scrap market.
- Policy Pathway: The government needs to implement a carbon price regime and provide fiscal support to smaller players to ensure an equitable transition.
4. Pakistan’s Democratic Dilemma: The 27th Amendment
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations; Effect of regional policies on India’s interests; Neighborhood relations).
Context: Pakistan’s recent 27th Amendment (PCA) significantly alters the country’s constitutional order by sidelining its Supreme Court.
Key Points:
- Judicial Fragmentation: The PCA transfers jurisdiction over constitutional interpretation and provincial disputes to a newly created Federal Constitutional Court (FCC).
- Executive Influence: By diluting the Supreme Court’s role as the final arbiter, the amendment makes judicial authority vulnerable to institutional marginalization under the executive.
- South Asian Strain: This move is part of a broader regional trend of institutional strain and political instability in the Global South.
- Lesson for India: The editorial emphasizes that constitutional democracy survives not on text alone, but on the continued independence of courts and respect for boundaries.
UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Neighborhood Dynamics,” “Constitutional Governance,” and “Independence of Judiciary.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Consolidation of Power: The amendment is viewed as a tool to legitimize the concentration of power rather than deepening democratic guarantees.
- Rule of Law Equilibrium: Removing adjudication from the top court unsettles the balance of power carefully restored by previous constitutional measures.
5. Stem Cell Therapy: A Clinical Red Line for Autism
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Governance; Issues relating to health; Regulatory bodies) and GS Paper 3 (Science & Tech).
Context: The Supreme Court ruled that stem cell therapies cannot be offered as a clinical service for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).
Key Points:
- Lack of Evidence: The Bench noted a “dearth of established scientific evidence” regarding the efficacy and safety of stem cell use for ASD.
- Ethical Boundary: Consent obtained from parents for such unproven treatments is considered invalid as doctors cannot satisfy the prerequisite of disclosing adequate information.
- Regulatory Failure: The Court criticized the Union government for failing to act against clinics promoting “miraculous cures” at huge financial costs to vulnerable parents.
- New Oversight: The government is directed to constitute a dedicated authority for regulatory oversight over all stem cell research in India.
UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Bioethics,” “Health Regulations,” and “Scientific Validity in Medicine.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Reasonable Standard of Care: Administering scientifically unvalidated procedures fails the standard of care doctors owe to their patients.
- Patient Autonomy: The Court clarified that patient autonomy cannot be stretched to entitle someone to a procedure that is ethically impermissible.
Editorial Analysis
JANUARY 31, 2026CEA warns of Compulsive Scrolling and mental health risks. Advocating for a state that is agile, risk-taking, and experimental.
Decarbonizing a sector responsible for 12% of Emissions. Vital transition needed to triple output to 400MT by mid-century.
SC forbids unproven therapies as clinical services. Doctors must uphold the Standard of Care despite parental pressure for “miraculous cures.”
Bioethics
Mapping:
For today’s mapping session, we focus on New Tiger Reserves, Ramsar Site expansion, and Deep-Sea Resource Exploration.
1. India’s Latest Tiger Reserves (2025–2026)
As of early 2026, India has 58 Tiger Reserves. Mapping the newest additions is a high-priority task for competitive exams.
- Madhav Tiger Reserve (58th), Madhya Pradesh: Notified in March 2025, it is the newest and 9th tiger reserve in MP.
- Mapping Point: Located in the Shivpuri district, connecting the northern Aravalli-Vindhya landscape.
- Ratapani Tiger Reserve (57th), Madhya Pradesh: A critical corridor between the Bhopal and Hoshangabad regions.
- Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla (56th), Chhattisgarh: One of the largest reserves in the country, providing a contiguous habitat across the Chhattisgarh-UP-MP border.
2. Ramsar Sites Milestone (January 2026)
India has expanded its tally to 96 Ramsar Sites, maintaining its position as first in Asia and third globally in site count.
| New Ramsar Site | State | Key Significance |
| Kopra Reservoir | Chhattisgarh | India’s 95th site; the first Ramsar site for Chhattisgarh, located in Bilaspur. |
| Siliserh Lake | Rajasthan | India’s 96th site; located in Alwar, it is a critical semi-arid freshwater habitat. |
| Gogabeel Lake | Bihar | India’s 94th site; a major oxbow lake in the Katihar district. |
State Ranking: Tamil Nadu leads with 20 sites, followed by Uttar Pradesh with 10 sites.
3. Deep Ocean Mission & Maritime Mapping
India is intensifying its focus on the “Blue Economy” through the Samudrayaan project.
- Polymetallic Nodule (PMN) Site: India is exploring a 75,000 sq. km area in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB).
- Mapping Point: Mark the CIOB, where minerals like Manganese, Nickel, and Cobalt are being mapped at depths of 5,000+ meters.
- Hydrothermal Sulphide Sites: Mapping multi-metal deposits along the Indian Ocean Mid-Oceanic Ridges.
- Matsya 6000 Trials: The manned submersible is undergoing shallow-water tests off the Chennai coast in early 2026.
4. Geographical Indication (GI) New Entries
Mapping these “Product-to-Place” tags is essential for your website’s regional geography section.
- Kaladi (J&K): A traditional dairy product (“Mozzarella of Jammu”) from Udhampur being upscaled in early 2026.
- Thooyamalli Rice (Tamil Nadu): Native to the Cauvery delta, known for its “pearl-like” appearance.
- Woraiyur Cotton Sari (Tamil Nadu): Woven in the Tiruchi district on the banks of the Cauvery.
Summary Mapping Checklist
| Category | Mapping Highlight | Key Location |
| 58th Tiger Reserve | Madhav Tiger Reserve | Shivpuri, MP |
| 96th Ramsar Site | Siliserh Lake | Alwar, Rajasthan |
| Deep-Sea Hub | Central Indian Ocean Basin | South of the Equator |
| New Dairy GI | Kaladi | Udhampur, J&K |
Mapping Brief
BIODIVERSITY & BLUE ECONOMYMapping a 75,000 sq km area in the Central Indian Ocean Basin for Polymetallic Nodules rich in Manganese and Cobalt at depths exceeding 5,000 meters.
Initial trials off the Chennai Coast mark India’s manned submersible capability. Strategic mapping focuses on Hydrothermal Sulphide sites along mid-oceanic ridges.
From the dairy specialty Kaladi of Jammu to the pearl-like Thooyamalli Rice of the Cauvery Delta, regional geography gains new economic identities.