NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-3 (The Delhi Sultans)

This chapter, “The Delhi Sultans,” details the transformation of Delhi into a powerful capital and the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate from the 12th to the 15th centuries.

1. Delhi as a Capital

Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who were defeated by the Chauhans of Ajmer in the mid-12th century.

• Commercial Centre: Under the Tomaras and Chauhans, Delhi became an important commercial hub.
• Dehliwal: Rich Jaina merchants in the city constructed temples and minted coins called dehliwal, which had a wide circulation.
• The Sultanate: The foundation of the Delhi Sultanate in the early 13th century marked the start of Delhi’s control over vast areas of the subcontinent. The Sultans built several cities in the area, such as Dehli-i Kuhna, Siri, and Jahanpanah.

2. Finding Out About the Delhi Sultans

Historians rely on inscriptions, coins, and architecture, but especially valuable are tawarikh (singular: tarikh), which are histories written in Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.

• Authors of Tawarikh: These were learned men—secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers—who lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and rarely in villages.
• Advice to Rulers: They often wrote for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards and advised them on the need to preserve an “ideal” social order based on birthright and gender distinctions.
• Raziyya Sultan: In 1236, Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya, became Sultan. Although more able than her brothers, she was removed from the throne in 1240 because the nobles were uncomfortable with a woman ruler.

3. Expansion of the Sultanate

The Sultanate’s control expanded through two main types of frontiers:

• The Internal Frontier: Campaigns aimed at consolidating the hinterlands of the garrison towns (fortified settlements with soldiers). This involved clearing forests in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and expelling hunter-gatherers and pastoralists to promote agriculture.
• The External Frontier: Military expeditions into southern India started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and reached their farthest extent under Muhammad Tughluq. These armies captured elephants, horses, and slaves and looted precious metals.

4. Administration and Consolidation

To consolidate such a vast kingdom, rulers needed reliable governors and administrators.

• Bandagan: Early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, favoured special slaves purchased for military service, called bandagan in Persian. They were trained for important political offices and were totally dependent on their master.
• Iqta System: The Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders as governors of territories called iqtas.
• Muqtis: The holders of these iqtas were called muqtis or iqtadars. Their duty was to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas. In return, they collected the revenues of their assignments as salary.
• Control over Muqtis: To prevent muqtis from becoming too powerful, the office was not made hereditary, and they were assigned iqtas for short periods. Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of revenue they collected.

5. Challenges and Invasions

• Local Chieftains: Sultans like Alauddin Khalji forced local chieftains and Mongol invaders to accept their authority and pay taxes. The state brought the assessment and collection of land revenue under its own control.
• Mongol Invasions: The Delhi Sultanate faced increased Mongol attacks from Afghanistan during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.
  • Alauddin Khalji focused on a defensive posture, building a new garrison town (Siri) and maintaining a large standing army.
  • Muhammad Tughluq planned an offensive, raising a huge army to attack Transoxiana, but his administrative measures, like shifting the capital to Daulatabad and introducing a “token” currency, were largely failures.

6. The Sultanate in the 15th and 16th Centuries

After the Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526.

• New Kingdoms: By this time, independent rulers established powerful states in Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and South India.
• Sher Shah Suri: Starting as a manager for a small territory, he eventually challenged and defeated the Mughal Emperor Humayun. Although the Suri dynasty ruled for only 15 years, its administration became a model followed by the great Emperor Akbar.

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⚖️Indian Polity: Fundamental Rights (Articles 12–35)

Fundamental Rights are enshrined in Part III of the Constitution. They are often called the Magna Carta of India. They represent the essential conditions for the material and moral protection of citizens. These rights are justiciable, meaning they can be enforced by the courts.

1. General Provisions (Articles 12 & 13)

Article 12: Definition of “State”

To enforce Fundamental Rights, one must know who is accountable. Article 12 defines the “State” to include:

• Legislative & Executive Organs of the Union: Parliament, Ministries, President.
• Legislative & Executive Organs of States: Vidhan Sabha, Governor.
• Local Authorities: Municipalities, Panchayats.
• Other Authorities: Statutory and non-statutory bodies like LIC, ONGC, and SAIL.
  • Landmark Case: Ajay Hasia v. Khalid Mujib established the “Instrumentality Test” to determine if a body is a State agency.

Article 13: Laws Inconsistent with Fundamental Rights

This article gives the Judiciary the power of Judicial Review.

• Art 13(1): Pre-constitutional laws that violate rights become void (Doctrine of Eclipse).
• Art 13(2): The State shall not make any law that takes away or abridges Fundamental Rights (Doctrine of Severability).
• Art 13(3): Defines “Law” broadly to include ordinances, orders, bye-laws, rules, regulations, notifications, and customs.

2. Right to Equality (Articles 14–18)

Article 14: Equality Before Law

• Equality before Law: No one is above the law (British concept).
• Equal Protection of Laws: Like should be treated alike (American concept).
• Reasonable Classification: Laws can treat different groups differently if the classification is rational and not arbitrary.

Article 15: Prohibition of Discrimination

• The State cannot discriminate against any citizen only on grounds of Religion, Race, Caste, Sex, or Place of Birth.
• Exceptions: Special provisions for women, children, SC/ST, and OBCs are allowed for social advancement.

Article 16: Equality in Public Employment

• Ensures equal opportunity for all citizens in government jobs.
• Exceptions: Allows for Reservations in favor of any backward class that is not adequately represented in State services.

Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability

• Untouchability is abolished, and its practice in any form is a punishable offense. This is an Absolute Right.

Article 18: Abolition of Titles

• The State cannot confer any title (except military or academic distinctions).
• Indian citizens cannot accept titles from foreign states.
• Note: National Awards (Bharat Ratna, etc.) are valid but cannot be used as prefixes/suffixes.

3. Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22)

Article 19: Protection of 6 Freedoms

1. Speech and Expression (Includes freedom of the press).
2. Assembly (Peaceful and without arms).
3. Association (Includes forming unions and co-operative societies).
4. Movement (Throughout the territory of India).
5. Residence (To reside and settle in any part of India).
6. Profession (To practice any occupation or trade).

• Note: These are subject to Reasonable Restrictions (Security of state, public order, etc.).

Article 20: Protection in Respect of Conviction

1. Ex-Post-Facto Law: You can’t be punished for an act that wasn’t a crime when you did it.
2. Double Jeopardy: You can’t be punished for the same offense more than once.
3. Self-Incrimination: You can’t be forced to be a witness against yourself.

Article 21: Right to Life and Personal Liberty

• No person shall be deprived of life or liberty except according to the procedure established by law.
• Expanded Scope: Includes rights to privacy, clean environment, health, and a speedy trial.
• Article 21A: Right to free and compulsory education for children (6–14 years).

Article 22: Protection Against Arrest and Detention

• Punitive Detention: Arrested persons must be told why, allowed to consult a lawyer, and produced before a Magistrate within 24 hours.
• Preventive Detention: Detention without trial to prevent a future crime (max 3 months without Advisory Board review).

4. Protection Against Exploitation (Articles 23–24)

Article 23: Prohibition of Forced Labor

• Prohibits human trafficking, Begar (unpaid labor), and other forms of forced labor.

Article 24: Prohibition of Child Labor

• Prohibits employment of children under 14 years in factories, mines, or any hazardous employment.

5. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28)

• Article 25: Individual right to profess, practice, and propagate religion.
• Article 26: Right of religious denominations to manage their own affairs and property.
• Article 27: No person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of any particular religion.
• Article 28: Prohibits religious instruction in educational institutions wholly maintained by State funds.

6. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30)

• Article 29: Protection of the distinct language, script, or culture of any section of citizens (Minorities).
• Article 30: Right of religious and linguistic minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
• Article 31: Repealed (Right to Property moved to Article 300A).

7. Articles 32–35

Article 32: Right to Constitutional Remedies

The “Heart and Soul” of the Constitution. It allows you to go directly to the Supreme Court. and allows the Supreme Court to issue Writs:

1. Habeas Corpus (To produce the body)
2. Mandamus (To command performance)
3. Prohibition (To stop a lower court)
4. Certiorari (To quash an order)
5. Quo-Warranto (To challenge a public office claim)

Articles 33, 34, & 35

• Article 35: Only the Parliament has the power to make laws to give effect to Fundamental Rights (State legislatures cannot).
• Article 33: Parliament can restrict the rights of Armed Forces/Police to ensure discipline.
• Article 34: Rights can be restricted while Martial Law is in force.

Revision Summary Table

Cluster	Articles	Key Essence
Equality	14–18	Social and Legal fairness.
Freedom	19–22	Individual Liberty and Protection.
Exploitation	23–24	Human Dignity.
Religion	25–28	Secularism and Belief.
Education	29–30	Minority Identity.
Remedies	32–35	Judicial Protection (The Heart & Soul).

Short-tricks to remember Articles 12-35

To memorize Articles 12 to 35, you can use a mix of Hindi and English mnemonics. These “short-tricks” help link the article number to a keyword, making them perfect for your website’s “Exam Hack” section.

Trick 1: The “Hinglish” Rhyme (Art 14–24)

This is a popular method to remember the sequence using catchy Hindi phrases.

• 12-13 (Intro): 12 State ki definition, 13 Law ka correction.
• 14-18 (Equality): Sab barabar (14), No bhedbhav (15), Job ka mauka (16), Chhuachhoot khatam (17), Title hatam (18).
• 19-22 (Freedom): 19 Bola, 20 Bach gaya (Conviction), 21 Jeeya (Life), 22 Reha hua (Arrest).
• 23-24 (Exploitation): 23 Badi trafficking, 24 Chhote bachche (Child Labor).

Trick 2: The “E-DOUT” Acronym (Right to Equality)

This helps you memorize the specific order of the first cluster (Articles 14–18).

E — D — O — U — T

• E – Equality before law (Art 14)
• D – Prohibition of Discrimination (Art 15)
• O – Opportunity in Public Employment (Art 16)
• U – Abolition of Untouchability (Art 17)
• T – Abolition of Titles (Art 18)

Trick 3: The “S-OLEA” Acronym (Freedom Cluster)

For the six freedoms under Article 19(1), remember this name: S-OLEA.

• S – Speech and Expression
• O – Organize / Assemble (Assembly)
• L – League / Association (Associations)
• E – Everywhere Movement (Movement)
• A – Anywhere Residence (Residence)
• (Note: The ‘P’ for Profession completes the list)

Trick 4: Religion & Education (Art 25–30)

Use a short story about a Minority School.

• 25-28 (Religion): “Believe (25), Manage (26), No Tax (27), No Prayer pressure (28).”
• 29-30 (Minority): “Save Culture (29), Open School (30).”

Trick 5: The Legal Remedies (Art 32–35)

Think of “The Court’s Call”.

• 32: The Doctor (Remedies – “Heart & Soul”)
• 33: The Soldier (Armed Forces limits)
• 34: The Marshal (Martial Law)
• 35: The Parliament (Power to make laws for FRs)

Master Cheat Sheet

Article Range	Mnemonic Key	Theme
14–18	E-DOUT	Equality
19	S-OLEA	6 Freedoms
23–24	Big vs Small	Exploitation
25–28	Pray & Manage	Religion
32	The Remedy	Writs

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