NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-1 (Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years)

This chapter, “Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years,” serves as an introduction to the medieval period of Indian history (roughly 700 to 1750 CE). It explores how maps, terminology, social structures, and religions evolved during this millennium.

1. Cartography and Perspective

Maps tell us a great deal about the geographical knowledge of a specific time.

• Al-Idrisi’s Map (1154 CE): The Arab geographer showed South India at the top and Sri Lanka as an island at the top.
• French Cartographer’s Map (1720s): Created nearly 600 years later, this map is more familiar to us, showing detailed coastal areas.
• Changing Accuracy: The difference between these maps shows that the “science of cartography” changed significantly over the centuries.

2. New and Old Terminologies

The meaning of words changes over time. Historical records exist in many languages which have changed significantly over centuries.

• Hindustan:
  • In the 13th century, Minhaj-i-Siraj used it to describe areas of Punjab, Haryana, and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna (political context).
  • By the 16th century, Babur used it to describe the geography, fauna, and culture of the subcontinent.
• Foreigner: Today, it means someone who is not Indian. In the medieval period, it was any stranger who appeared in a given village, someone who was not a part of that society or culture.

3. Historians and Their Sources

Historians use different types of sources depending on the period they are studying.

• Textual Records: The number and variety of textual records increased dramatically during this period because paper became cheaper and more widely available.
• Manuscripts: These were collected by wealthy people, rulers, monasteries, and temples. They were placed in archives.
• Scribes: Since there was no printing press, scribes copied manuscripts by hand. Small changes made during copying grew over centuries until different versions of the same text became significantly different.

4. Technological and Social Innovations

The period between 700 and 1750 was a time of great mobility and the emergence of new groups.

• Technological Changes: New technologies appeared, such as the persian wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in weaving, and firearms in combat.
• New Crops: Crops like potatoes, corn, chilies, tea, and coffee arrived in the subcontinent.

5. New Political and Social Groups: The Rajputs and Jatis

• The Rajputs: The name is derived from “Rajaputra” (son of a ruler). Between the 8th and 14th centuries, the term was applied to a body of warriors who claimed Kshatriya status.
• Jatis: As society became more differentiated, people were grouped into jatis (sub-castes) based on their backgrounds and occupations. Jatis framed their own rules and regulations to manage the conduct of their members, enforced by an assembly of elders known as the jati panchayat.

6. Region and Empire

Large states like those of the Cholas, Tughluqs, or Mughals encompassed many regions.

• Pan-Regional Empire: This term describes empires spanning diverse regions.
• Legacy of Empires: When large empires declined, many small states emerged, but the regions carried the distinct and shared legacies of the “pan-regional” rules in areas of governance, economy, and culture.

7. Old and New Religions

Major developments occurred in religious traditions during these thousand years.

• Hinduism: Changes included the worship of new deities, the construction of temples by royalty, and the growing importance of Brahmans and priests as dominant groups in society.
• Bhakti: The idea of Bhakti emerged—a loving, personal deity that devotees could reach without the aid of priests or elaborate sacrifices.
• Islam: New religions appeared in the subcontinent. Merchants and migrants first brought the teachings of the Holy Quran in the 7th century. Many rulers were patrons of Islam and the ulama (learned theologians and jurists).

8. Periodization of Indian History

Historians face challenges when dividing history into “blocks” of time.

• British Division: In the mid-19th century, British historians divided Indian history into “Hindu,” “Muslim,” and “British” periods based solely on the religion of the rulers.
• Modern View: Most historians today ignore this religious division and instead focus on social and economic changes to differentiate between the Ancient, Medieval, and Modern periods.

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⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 29, 30 and 31

While Articles 14–28 focus largely on individual and religious freedoms, Articles 29 and 30 protect group identities—specifically those of minorities. Article 31, once a cornerstone of Part III, tells the story of India’s constitutional evolution from protecting private wealth to enabling public welfare.

1. Article 29: Protection of Interests of Minorities

Article 29 ensures that “any section of citizens” can preserve their unique identity. Interestingly, while the title mentions “minorities,” the text uses the phrase “section of citizens,” making it broader in scope.

Key Clauses

• Article 29(1): Grants any section of citizens residing in India with a distinct language, script, or culture the right to conserve the same.
  • Note: Unlike Article 19, this right is not explicitly subject to “reasonable restrictions.” The Supreme Court has noted that the right to conserve a language includes the right to agitate for its protection.
• Article 29(2): Prohibits discrimination in admissions to educational institutions maintained by the State or receiving State aid based only on religion, race, caste, or language.

Scope of the Term “Section of Citizens”

In the Ahmedabad St. Xavier’s College Case, the Supreme Court ruled that Article 29 is not restricted to minorities. Even the majority community (if they have a distinct language/culture in a specific region) can claim this right.

2. Article 30: Right of Minorities to Establish and Administer Educational Institutions

This article is specifically for Religious and Linguistic Minorities. It provides them the autonomy to provide education to their own community.

The Rights Conferred

1. Right to Establish: The right to bring into existence an educational institution of their choice (schools, colleges, or universities).
2. Right to Administer: The right to manage, conduct, and govern the institution without unnecessary external control.
3. Protection Against Discrimination in Aid: The State cannot discriminate against a minority-managed school when granting financial aid just because it is a minority institution.

Key Legal Developments

• T.M.A. Pai Foundation Case (2002): The Supreme Court clarified that “Minority” status must be determined State-wise, not nationally. For example, Hindus can be a minority in Punjab or Nagaland.
• Regulatory Oversight: While minority institutions have autonomy, the State can still impose regulations to ensure academic standards, hygiene, security, and the welfare of teachers. It is a “right to administer,” not a “right to maladminister.”

3. Article 31: The Right to Property (Repealed)

Article 31 was originally a Fundamental Right that prohibited the State from taking a person’s property without a valid law and “compensation.”

The History of Repeal

In the early years of independence, Article 31 became a hurdle for Land Reforms and the abolition of the Zamindari system. Landowners repeatedly challenged government projects in court, demanding high compensation.

• The 44th Amendment Act (1978): Abolished Article 31 (and Art 19(1)(f)) as a Fundamental Right.
• Current Status: It was shifted to a new chapter in the Constitution as Article 300A.

Right to Property Today (Article 300A)

• It is no longer a Fundamental Right; it is now a Legal/Constitutional Right.
• Impact: A citizen cannot approach the Supreme Court directly under Article 32 if their property is taken. However, they can still go to the High Court under Article 226.
• Rule: No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law. The government must still follow a fair process and pay compensation under modern laws like the LARR Act, 2013.

Comparison Summary Table

Feature	Article 29	Article 30	Article 31 (Now 300A)
Category	Cultural & Educational	Educational Autonomy	Right to Property
Available To	Any section of citizens (Majority & Minority)	Only Religious & Linguistic Minorities	All Persons
Current Status	Fundamental Right	Fundamental Right	Legal Right (Not Fundamental)
Key Purpose	Conserving script/culture	Managing own schools	Balanced land acquisition

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