NCERT History: Class 6 Chapter-11 (New Empires and Kingdoms)

Chapter 11, “New Empires and Kingdoms,” explores the rise of the Gupta dynasty, the reign of Harshavardhana, and the powerful kingdoms of South India.

1. Prashastis and Samudragupta

Much of what we know about the Guptas comes from inscriptions called prashastis, a Sanskrit word meaning “in praise of”.

• Samudragupta’s Inscription: A famous prashasti for Samudragupta was inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad. It was composed by his court poet and minister, Harishena.
• The King as a Warrior: The poet describes Samudragupta as a magnificent warrior whose body was covered in scars from battle-axes, arrows, and spears.
• A Musician-King: Coins from this era depict Samudragupta playing the veena, showing his interest in music and poetry.

Samudragupta’s Four-Fold Policy

Harishena outlines how the king handled different regions differently:

1. Aryavarta (North India): Nine rulers were uprooted, and their kingdoms became part of the empire.
2. Dakshinapatha (South India): Twelve rulers surrendered after defeat; Samudragupta allowed them to rule again as his subordinates.
3. Inner Circle: States like Assam, Nepal, and the gana sanghas of the North-West paid tribute and followed his orders.
4. Outlying Areas: Descendants of the Kushanas/Shakas and the ruler of Sri Lanka submitted and offered daughters in marriage.

2. Genealogies and Titles

Gupta prashastis often list ancestors (genealogies) to show the family’s rise to power.

• Titles of Honor: Samudragupta’s father, Chandragupta, was the first to adopt the grand title maharaj-adhiraja. His ancestors were previously known simply as maha-rajas.
• Chandragupta II: Samudragupta’s son led an expedition to Western India and defeated the last of the Shakas. He is linked to the Vikram Samvat era (beginning 58 BCE) and the title Vikramaditya. His court was home to the poet Kalidasa and the astronomer Aryabhata.

3. Harshavardhana and the Harshacharita

While we study Guptas through coins and inscriptions, we learn about King Harshavardhana (who ruled 1400 years ago) through biographies.

• The Harshacharita: A biography written in Sanskrit by his court poet, Banabhatta.
• Ascension to Power: Harsha became king of Thanesar after his father and brother died. He later took over Kanauj after his brother-in-law was killed by the ruler of Bengal.
• Expansion and Defeat: He (Harsha) conquered Magadha and Bengal but was stopped from entering the Deccan by the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II at the Narmada river.
• Xuan Zang: The Chinese pilgrim stayed at Harsha’s court and left a detailed account of the administration and society.

4. Southern Kingdoms: Pallavas and Chalukyas

These were the dominant dynasties in South India during this period.

• Pallavas: Their kingdom centered around their capital, Kanchipuram, and extended to the Kaveri delta.
• Chalukyas: Centered in the Raichur Doab; their capital, Aihole, was a prosperous trading and religious hub.
• Pulakeshin II: The most famous Chalukya ruler. His court poet Ravikirti composed a prashasti describing his military expeditions along both the west and east coasts.

5. Administration and Local Government

Rulers developed new systems to win the support of powerful men.

• Hereditary Posts: Some administrative roles were passed from father to son. Harishena was a maha-danda-nayaka (chief judicial officer) like his father.
• Multiple Offices: One person often held several roles; Harishena was also a kumar-amatya (important minister) and sandhi-vigrahika (minister of war and peace).
• Samantas: These were military leaders who provided troops to the king. Instead of salaries, they were often given land grants and collected revenue to maintain their armies.
• Southern Assemblies: Pallava inscriptions mention the sabha (assembly of Brahmin landowners), the ur (village assembly of non-Brahmins), and the nagaram (merchant organization).

6. Society and Ordinary People

• Language and Status: In Kalidasa’s plays (like Abhijnana Shakuntalam), the king and Brahmins speak Sanskrit, while ordinary men and women use Prakrit.
• Untouchability: The pilgrim Fa Xian noted that “untouchables” were forced to live outside cities and strike wood to warn others of their approach.
• The King’s Army: When the army moved, it was an enormous procession of musicians, soldiers, and animals carrying everything from weapons to golden footstools. Villagers were expected to provide hospitality and gifts.

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⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 23, 24 and 25

While previous articles protect the individual from the State, Articles 23 and 24 often protect the individual from private exploitation, and Article 25 establishes the individual’s spiritual autonomy.

1. Article 23: Prohibition of Traffic in Human Beings and Forced Labour

Article 23 is a comprehensive “Right against Exploitation.” It is unique because it is enforceable against both the State and private individuals.

Key Components

• Human Trafficking: The illegal trade of humans for the purposes of reproductive slavery, commercial sexual exploitation, or forced labor.
• Begar: A form of forced labor where a person is compelled to work without any payment. It was a common historical practice in princely states.
• Forced Labour: Any work or service exacted from any person under the threat of any penalty and for which the person has not offered himself voluntarily.

The “Economic Compulsion” Doctrine

In the landmark case PUDR v. Union of India (Asiad Workers Case), the Supreme Court significantly expanded this article.

• The Ruling: The Court held that “force” is not just physical or legal. If a person is forced to work for less than the minimum wage due to poverty or hunger, that is also considered “forced labor” under Article 23.

The Exception [Clause 2]

The State can impose compulsory service for public purposes (e.g., military conscription or mandatory social service).

• Condition: In doing so, the State cannot discriminate based only on religion, race, caste, or class.
• Remuneration: Interestingly, the State is not constitutionally bound to pay for this compulsory service, though it usually does.

2. Article 24: Prohibition of Employment of Children

Article 24 is a “Social Mandate” aimed at ensuring that the childhood of India’s citizens is not lost to labor.

The Constitutional Mandate

It prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 in:

1. Factories
2. Mines
3. Hazardous Employment (Construction, Railways, Fireworks manufacture).

Evolution through Legislation and Judiciary

• Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016: This effectively closed the loopholes of Article 24. It prohibits the employment of children below 14 in all occupations, except helping in a family business after school. It also introduced a new category called “Adolescents” (14-18 years), who are prohibited from hazardous work.
• M.C. Mehta v. State of Tamil Nadu (1996): The SC directed the creation of a Child Labour Rehabilitation Welfare Fund. Employers caught violating the law must pay ₹20,000 per child into this fund.

3. Article 25: Freedom of Religion (Individual Rights)

Article 25 is the bedrock of Indian Secularism. It guarantees every individual the freedom to hold and practice their beliefs.

The Four Pillars of Religious Freedom

1. Freedom of Conscience: The absolute inner freedom to believe in any God or none at all.
2. Right to Profess: The outward declaration of one’s faith and belief.
3. Right to Practice: The right to perform rituals, ceremonies, and exhibitions of belief (e.g., wearing a Turban or a Cross).
4. Right to Propagate: The right to spread one’s ideas.
   • The Conversion Limit: In Stainislaus v. State of MP, the SC ruled that the right to “propagate” is not the right to “convert.” Forced or fraudulent conversions are not protected.

The “Essential Religious Practices” Test

The Judiciary has developed a doctrine to decide which parts of a religion are protected.

• Only practices that are integral or essential to the religion are protected.
• Example: The SC ruled that Triple Talaq was not an essential practice of Islam and could therefore be abolished. Similarly, the use of loudspeakers for Azaan or Bhajan can be regulated as they are not “essential” to the core faith.

The State’s Power to Reform [Article 25(2)]

The State reserves the right to intervene in religious matters for:

• Social Reform: Opening Hindu temples to all castes (Dalits).
• Secular Activities: Regulating the financial or political wings of a religious trust.
• Note: In this context, “Hindus” includes Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists.

Summary

Feature	Article 23	Article 24	Article 25
Category	Right Against Exploitation	Right Against Exploitation	Right to Freedom of Religion
Focus	Forced Labor & Trafficking	Child Labor (under 14)	Individual Religious Freedom
Target	Adults & Children	Children Specifically	All Persons (Individuals)
Key Limitation	Public Service Exception	None (Absolute for under 14)	Public Order, Morality, Health

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