NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-7 (Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners)

This chapter “Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners” details the history of Indian crafts and industries during British rule, specifically focusing on the textile and iron and steel industries. Both were essential to the global Industrial Revolution, with cotton production making Britain a premier industrial power and its later growth in iron and steel earning it the title “workshop of the world”.

1. Indian Textiles and the Global Market

Around 1750, before the British conquest of Bengal, India was the world’s largest producer of cotton textiles. They were renowned for fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship.

The History Behind Textile Names

• Muslin: European traders first saw fine cotton from India carried by Arab merchants in Mosul (modern-day Iraq), so they named all finely woven textiles “muslin”.
• Calico: When the Portuguese landed in Calicut (Kerala) for spices, they took back cotton textiles which became known as “calico”.
• Chintz: Derived from the Hindi word chhint, it refers to cloth with small, colorful floral designs. By the 1680s, there was a massive craze for this in England and Europe due to its texture and relative cheapness.
• Bandanna: Derived from the Hindi word bandhna (tying), it refers to brightly colored and printed scarves for the neck or head produced through tying and dyeing.

Competition and the Calico Act

By the early 18th century, the popularity of Indian textiles in England led wool and silk makers to protest. This resulted in the Calico Act of 1720, which banned the use of printed cotton chintz in England. To compete with Indian imports, British producers began imitating Indian designs and sought technological innovations like the spinning jenny (1764) and the steam engine (1786).

• Spinning Jenny (1764): Invented by John Kaye, it allowed a single worker to operate several spindles.
• Steam Engine (1786): Richard Arkwright’s invention revolutionized weaving, allowing cloth to be woven in immense quantities and very cheaply.

2. The Weaving Communities

Weaving skills were passed down through generations within specific communities.

• Famous Communities: Included the Tanti weavers of Bengal, Julahas (or Momin) of North India, and the Sale, Kaikollar, and Devangs of South India.
• Division of Labor:
  • Spinning: Primarily a woman’s task using the charkha and takli.
  • Weaving: Mostly done by men.
  • Dyeing: Done by specialists known as Rangrez.
  • Block Printing: Done by specialists called Chhipigars.

3. The Decline of Indian Textiles

The rise of British industrial production devastated Indian weavers in several ways:

• Market Loss: English-made cotton textiles ousted Indian goods from traditional markets in Africa, America, and Europe by the early 19th century.
• High Tariffs: Heavy duties were imposed on Indian textiles imported into Britain.
• Unemployment: Thousands of weavers, especially in Bengal, lost their livelihood as European companies stopped buying their goods.
• Flooding of Local Markets: By the 1880s, two-thirds of all cotton clothes worn by Indians were manufactured in Britain.
• Nationalism and Khadi: Handloom weaving survived partly because machines could not produce intricate borders or traditional patterns. Mahatma Gandhi later urged people to boycott imported textiles and use Khadi, making the charkha a symbol of Indian nationalism.

4. The Sword of Tipu Sultan and Wootz Steel

India had a long tradition of high-quality metallurgy, famously exemplified by the sword of Tipu Sultan.

• Wootz Steel: Tipu’s sword was made of Wootz steel, a high-carbon steel produced across South India. It featured a sharp edge with a “flowing water” pattern created by small carbon crystals. European scientists, including Michael Faraday, were fascinated by its properties.
• Water Pattern: The steel produced a flowing water pattern from very small carbon crystals embedded in the iron.
• Smelting Process: Iron was mixed with charcoal in small clay pots with intricate temperature control.
• Decline: This specialized craft died out after the British conquest, as imports from England displaced local production.

Decline of Local Smelting

The traditional iron smelting craft declined in the 19th century due to:

• Forest Laws: The colonial government prevented people from entering reserved forests, making it impossible for smelters to find wood for charcoal or iron ore.
• High Taxes: In areas where forest access was granted, the government charged a very high tax for every furnace used, reducing income.
• Imported Iron: By the late 19th century, Indian ironsmiths began using cheap imported iron from Britain to make utensils, lowering the demand for locally produced iron.

5. The Rise of Modern Factories: TISCO

The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) marked the beginning of modern heavy industry in India.

• Discovery of Ore: In 1904, Charles Weld and Dorabji Tata found one of the world’s finest iron ore deposits in the Rajhara Hills with the help of the Agaria community.
• Jamshedpur: A site was chosen on the banks of the river Subarnarekha where water was available near the ore deposits.
• The First World War: TISCO expanded rapidly during WWI because:
  1. Steel imports from Britain declined as they were needed for the war in Europe.
  2. The Indian Railways turned to TISCO for rails.
  3. TISCO produced shells and carriage wheels for the war.
• Success: By 1919, the colonial government was buying 90% of TISCO’s steel, making it the biggest steel industry in the British empire.

⚖️Indian Polity: Duration and Membership of Parliament

The Parliament’s continuity and the integrity of its members are governed by Articles 83, 84, and 102. These provisions ensure that the legislature remains functional and accountable.

1. Duration of the Houses (Article 83)

Rajya Sabha (The Permanent House)

• It is not subject to dissolution.
• It is a continuing chamber, but one-third of its members retire every second year.
• Member Term: The Constitution does not fix the term; the Representation of the People Act (1951) fixed it at 6 years.

Lok Sabha (The Temporary House)

• Normal term is 5 years from the date of its first meeting.
• It can be dissolved by the President at any time before 5 years.
• Emergency Extension: During a National Emergency, Parliament can extend the Lok Sabha’s life by law for one year at a time (for any length of time). However, this extension cannot continue beyond 6 months after the Emergency has ceased.

2. Qualification for Membership (Article 84)

To be chosen as a Member of Parliament (MP), a person must:

1. Be a citizen of India.
2. Oath: Make and subscribe an oath before a person authorized by the Election Commission.
3. Age:
   • Not less than 30 years for Rajya Sabha.
   • Not less than 25 years for Lok Sabha.
4. Possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by Parliament (e.g., must be a registered elector).

3. Disqualification of Members (Article 102)

This is a high-priority topic for competitive exams. A person is disqualified from being an MP if:

• Office of Profit: They hold any office of profit under the Government of India or a State Government (other than a Minister).
• Unsound Mind: If declared so by a competent court.
• Insolvent: If they are an undischarged insolvent (bankrupt).
• Citizenship: If they are not a citizen of India or have voluntarily acquired foreign citizenship.
• Parliamentary Law: If they are disqualified under any law made by Parliament (e.g., RPA 1951).

Who Decides? On questions of disqualification under Article 102, the President’s decision is final. However, the President must obtain the opinion of the Election Commission and act accordingly.

4. The Anti-Defection Law (10th Schedule)

A member can also be disqualified on grounds of defection under the Tenth Schedule (added by the 52nd Amendment Act, 1985):

1. Voluntary Giving Up: If they voluntarily give up membership of their political party.
2. Voting Against Party: If they vote (or abstain) contrary to party directions without prior permission.
3. Independents: If an independent member joins any political party.
4. Nominated Members: If they join a political party after 6 months.

Who Decides? The Chairman (Rajya Sabha) or Speaker (Lok Sabha) decides on disqualification for defection. Their decision is subject to Judicial Review.

Detailed Summary Table