IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 2 Feb 2026
NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-6 (Colonialism and the City)
This chapter “Colonialism and the City” explains the transformation of Indian cities under colonial rule, with a specific focus on Delhi.
1. Urbanization and De-urbanization
Under British rule, the landscape of Indian cities shifted dramatically as trade and power dynamics changed.
- Growth of Industrial Cities: In the West, cities like Leeds and Manchester grew rapidly due to industrialization. In contrast, Indian cities did not expand as quickly in the 19th century.
- Rise of Presidency Cities: Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras became “Presidency cities,” serving as major centers of British power and trade.
- De-urbanization: Many older manufacturing and port towns declined.
- Reasons for decline: A drop in demand for specialized goods, the shift of trade to new British ports, and the collapse of regional power centers after local rulers were defeated.
- Affected Cities: Machlipatnam, Surat, and Seringapatam were notable examples of de-urbanized cities in the 19th century.
2. The Splendor of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi)
Before the British transformation, Delhi’s most famous incarnation was Shahjahanabad, built by Shah Jahan starting in 1639.
- Structure: It consisted of the Red Fort (palace complex) and an adjoining Walled City with 14 gates.
- Key Landmarks:
- Jama Masjid: One of India’s largest and grandest mosques; no place in the city was higher than this mosque at the time.
- Chandni Chowk: A broad main street featuring a canal running down its center.
- Culture: The city was a center of Sufi culture, filled with dargahs (tombs), khanqahs (lodges), and idgahs (open prayer spaces).
- Social Division: Despite its beauty, there were sharp divisions between the rich (living in mansions called havelis) and the poor (living in mud houses).
3. Delhi Under British Rule (1803–1911)
The British gained control of Delhi in 1803. Initially, their presence was less transformative than in other colonial cities.
- Early Coexistence: In the first half of the 19th century, the British lived within the Walled City alongside wealthy Indians and enjoyed Urdu/Persian culture.
- The Delhi Renaissance: The period from 1830 to 1857 is often called a “renaissance” due to a great intellectual flowering in sciences and humanities at Delhi College.
- Impact of 1857: After the Revolt of 1857, the British sought to erase Delhi’s Mughal past.
- They cleared areas around the Red Fort, destroying gardens and pavilions.
- Mosques were put to other uses; for example, Zinat-al-Masjid became a bakery.
- One-third of the city was demolished, and the British moved to the northern Civil Lines area.
4. The Planning of New Delhi
In 1911, the British announced the shift of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi.
- Architects: Edward Lutyens and Herbert Baker were commissioned to design the new 10-square-mile city on Raisina Hill.
- Symbolism of Power: The buildings were designed to assert British importance.
- The Viceroy’s Palace (now Rashtrapati Bhavan) was intentionally built higher than the Jama Masjid.
- Architectural styles borrowed from Classical Greece, the Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, and Mughal jalis.
- Design Philosophy: In contrast to the “chaos” and “crowded mohallas” of the Old City, New Delhi featured broad, straight streets and sprawling mansions.
- Health and Hygiene: New Delhi was planned as a “clean and healthy space” with better water supply, drainage, and green trees for fresh air.
5. Partition and its Impact (1947)
The Partition of India in 1947 radically changed Delhi’s population and culture.
- Population Shift: Thousands of Muslims migrated to Pakistan, while Sikh and Hindu refugees from Punjab flooded into Delhi.
- Refugee Life: New colonies like Lajpat Nagar and Tilak Nagar emerged to house the nearly 500,000 migrants who arrived.
- Social and Cultural Change: The migrants’ occupations (landlords, lawyers, traders) differed from the artisans and laborers they replaced. The Urdu-based urban culture was overshadowed by new tastes in food, dress, and the arts brought from Punjab.
6. Comparison of Residential Spaces
| Feature | Haveli (Mughal Mansion) | Colonial Bungalow |
| Residents | Multiple families. | One nuclear family. |
| Design | Walled compounds with courtyards and fountains. | Single-storeyed with a pitched roof and wide verandas. |
| Gendered Space | Outer courtyard for men; inner pavilions for women. | Separate living, dining, and bedrooms. |
| Grounds | Densely packed within the city. | Set in one or two acres of open ground. |
Colonialism and the City
Haveli
Mughal mansions featuring courtyards and gendered spaces for multiple families.
Bungalow
Colonial single-family homes with pitched roofs, verandas, and vast open grounds.
Gulistan
The garden-like quality of Old Delhi, much of which was demolished post-1857.
Class-8 History Chapter-6 PDF
Complete Study Notes: Colonialism and the City
⚖️Indian Polity: Parliament (Part V) – Composition of Rajya Sabha & Lok Sabha
Under the Indian Constitution, the Parliament is not just the two Houses; it is a three-part body.
The Parliament = The President + Rajya Sabha + Lok Sabha.
Composition of the Parliament (Part V)
1. Article 79: Constitution of Parliament
This article specifies that there shall be a Parliament for the Union, consisting of the President and two Houses to be known respectively as the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha).
Note: Although the President is not a member of either House, they are an integral part of Parliament because no bill can become law without the President’s assent.
2. Article 80: Composition of Rajya Sabha (Upper House)
The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and is not subject to dissolution. It represents the States and Union Territories.
- Maximum Strength:250
- 238 are representatives of the States and UTs (elected indirectly).
- 12 are nominated by the President (from fields of Art, Literature, Science, and Social Service).
- Current Strength: 245 (233 elected + 12 nominated).
- Election Process:
- Representatives of States are elected by the elected members of State Legislative Assemblies (MLAs).
- Method: Proportional representation by means of a Single Transferable Vote.
- Representation: Seats are allotted to states based on population. (Unlike the US Senate, where every state has equal representation).
3. Article 81: Composition of Lok Sabha (Lower House)
The Lok Sabha is the popular house, representing the people of India as a whole.
- Maximum Strength:550 (Earlier 552, but 2 seats for Anglo-Indians were abolished).
- 530 representatives of the States.
- 20 representatives of the Union Territories.
- Current Strength: 543 (All elected).
- Election Process:
- Members are elected directly by the people on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise.
- Every citizen who is not less than 18 years of age (61st Amendment Act, 1988) has the right to vote.
- Territorial Constituencies: Each state is divided into territorial constituencies such that the ratio between the population of each constituency and the number of seats allotted to it is, as far as practicable, the same throughout the state.
4. Key Differences: Rajya Sabha vs. Lok Sabha
Use this table for a quick “Comparison Guide” on your website:
| Feature | Rajya Sabha (Council of States) | Lok Sabha (House of the People) |
| Common Name | Upper House / House of Elders | Lower House / Popular House |
| Term | Permanent Body (1/3 members retire every 2nd year) | 5 Years (Can be dissolved earlier) |
| Presiding Officer | Vice-President (Chairman) | Speaker |
| Minimum Age | 30 Years | 25 Years |
| Max Strength | 250 | 550 |
| Election Type | Indirect (By MLAs) | Direct (By the People) |
5. Duration of the Houses (Article 83)
- Rajya Sabha: It is a permanent body. The term of an individual member is 6 years.
- Lok Sabha: Its normal term is 5 years. However, during a National Emergency, its term can be extended by Parliament for one year at a time for any length of time.
Composition of Parliament
Minimum Age
To be a member, one must be 30 years for Rajya Sabha and 25 years for Lok Sabha.
House Names
RS: Upper House / Council of States.
LS: Lower House / House of the People.
Presiding Officers
RS: Vice-President (Ex-officio Chairman).
LS: Speaker (Elected by members).
“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (2-February-2026)
Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials forFebruary 2, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.
1. Union Budget 2026: Prudence over Adventurism
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Government Budgeting; Mobilization of resources).
Context: Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman presented the Union Budget 2026, the first in the second quarter of the 21st century, focusing on productivity and employment.
Key Points:
- Fiscal Prudence: The Budget avoids “Big Bang” reforms or major direct tax relaxations, opting instead for a “scatter-shot” approach to propel medium-term growth.
- Capex Scale-up: The Centre’s capital expenditure target is set at ₹12.2 lakh crore for 2026-27 (4.4% of GDP), the highest in at least 10 years.
- Fiscal Deficit: The deficit target is set at 4.3% of GDP for FY27, down from an estimated 4.4% in FY26.
- Indirect Tax Relief: Customs duties were reduced for sectors like marine, leather, and textiles to boost exports and support energy transition.
- New Tax Act: The Income Tax Act of 2025 will take effect from April 1, 2026, aiming to make direct tax laws “concise and easy to understand.”
UPSC Relevance: Essential for questions on “Macroeconomic Stability,” “Capital Expenditure Impact,” and “Fiscal Consolidation.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Three Kartavyas: The Budget is structured around three “duties”: sustaining growth, fulfilling aspirations, and ensuring meaningful participation for all regions and sectors.
- Tax Revenue Sobriety: Tax projections are conservative; Corporate tax is projected to grow 14%, while Income-tax growth is pegged at 1.9% following last year’s relaxations.
- End of Compensation Cess: GST revenue is projected to contract by 13.5% due to the end of the Compensation Cess and 2025 rate rationalizations.
2. Strategic Manufacturing: Moving Beyond PLI
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Industrial Policy; Manufacturing; Science and Tech).
Context: The Budget signals an intent to deepen India’s capabilities in high-value, technology-intensive frontier sectors.
Key Points:
- Strategic Sectors: Emphasis is placed on seven critical industries: biopharma, semiconductors, electronics, rare earths, chemicals, capital goods, and textiles.
- Biopharma SHAKTI: A ₹10,000-crore outlay over five years to facilitate domestic production of biologics and biosimilars and set up three new NIPERs.
- ISM 2.0: Launch of India Semiconductor Mission 2.0 to move from fabrication to domestic production of equipment and materials.
- Rare Earth Corridors: Proposed in Odisha, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu to secure critical minerals for electronics and clean energy.
- MSME Support: A new ₹10,000 crore SME Growth Fund for equity support and rejuvenation of 200 legacy industrial clusters.
UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Atmanirbhar Bharat,” “Critical Mineral Security,” and “Industrial Transformation.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Value Chain Ascent: The move represents an effort to shift India’s export composition from low-value goods to high-complexity products like precision engineering.
- Regulatory Clarity: The expansion of the “safe harbour” threshold to ₹2,000 crore for Global Capability Centres (GCCs) provides fiscal predictability for large tech firms.
3. Infrastructure and Connectivity: The ‘Growth Connectors’
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Infrastructure; Railways; Logistics).
Context: A major push for high-speed connectivity and logistics efficiency as primary levers for economic renewal.
Key Points:
- High-Speed Rail: Seven new corridors (4,000 km network) announced at a cost of ₹16 lakh crore, connecting five Southern states and North India (e.g., Delhi-Varanasi).
- Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFC): A new corridor connecting Dankuni (West Bengal) to Surat (Gujarat) was announced.
- Inland Waterways: Operationalization of 20 new national waterways, starting with NW-5 in Odisha, to double the modal share of water transport.
- Maritime Rejuvenation: ₹10,000 crore allocated for container manufacturing in India over five years to reduce dependency on foreign tonnage.
UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Logistics Costs Reduction,” “Regional Development,” and “Modernization of Railways.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Travel Time Reduction: The high-speed network aims to drastically cut travel times (e.g., Chennai-Bengaluru to 1.5 hours; Delhi-Varanasi to 3 hours 50 mins).
- Logistics Efficiency: Shifting bulk cargo from road/rail to waterways targets a reduction in freight costs to 12% by 2047.
4. Social Sector: Redefining Welfare Responsibility
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Social Justice; Education; Health; Welfare Schemes).
Context: The Budget consolidates a trend where welfare spending is increasingly shifted to State governments.
Key Points:
- Education Hike: Allocation for the Education Ministry rose 14.21% to ₹1.39 lakh crore, with focus on STEM hostels for girls in every district.
- Mental Health Focus: Establishment of two new national mental health institutes (Ranchi and Tezpur) and a new NIMHANS-like institute in North India.
- Rural Employment: A 43% hike in rural job budgets, with the new VB-G RAM G Act (replacing MGNREGA) and a ₹30,000 crore allocation to clear MGNREGS liabilities.
- Geriatric Care: A strong care ecosystem for the elderly, with NSQF-aligned training for 1.5 lakh caregivers.
UPSC Relevance: Crucial for “Fiscal Federalism,” “Human Capital Development,” and “Vulnerable Sections Empowerment.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Cost-Sharing Shift: The new VB-G RAM G scheme requires a 60:40 Centre-State cost-sharing ratio, placing a significant financial burden on States.
- Health Spending Stagnation: Despite some highlights, health expenditure remains low at 1.96% of the overall budget, a marginal rise from previous years.
5. Fiscal Federalism: The 16th Finance Commission Report
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Federalism; Centre-State Relations; Constitutional Bodies).
Context: The 16th Finance Commission (FC) report recommended retaining the 41% share of tax devolution to States, which the Centre has accepted.
Key Points:
- Formula Tweaks: The new formula increases the weightage of population (17.5% from 15%) while reducing the weightage for demographic performance (10% from 12.5%).
- Southern Gains: Despite the tweaks, the shares for five Southern States (TN, Kerala, AP, Telangana, Karnataka) have risen due to other weighted factors.
- Shrinking Divisible Pool: The report noted that cesses and surcharges have reduced the shareable pool from 89.1% (2014-15) to roughly 74%-80% of gross tax revenues.
- Local Body Grants: Provision of ₹21.4 lakh crore for FY 2026-27 as grants for rural/urban local bodies and disaster management.
UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Revenue Sharing Mechanism,” “Demographic Challenges,” and “Horizontal vs. Vertical Devolution.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Per Capita Income Weight: The difference in per capita GSDP remains the highest weighted factor at 42.5%, highlighting a focus on inter-state equity.
- State Discontent: Some states (e.g., Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh) expressed disappointment over the discontinuation of certain Revenue Deficit Grants and lower overall shares compared to previous commissions.
Editorial Analysis
FEBRUARY 02, 2026₹10,000cr for Biopharma SHAKTI. Launch of rare earth corridors and ISM 2.0 to secure Critical Mineral value chains.
High-speed rail connecting 5 southern states. Aiming for 12% Logistics Costs by 2047 through 20 new national waterways.
New VB-G RAM G Act replaces MGNREGA. STEM hostels for girls in every district and focused geriatric caregiver training.
Fiscal Duty
Mapping:
For today’s mapping session, we focus on the strategic infrastructure and ecological updates from the Union Budget 2026–27 (presented yesterday, Feb 1st) and the recent World Wetlands Day announcements.
1. Newly Added Ramsar Sites (World Wetlands Day 2026)
As of January 31, 2026, India has officially expanded its Ramsar network to 98 sites. Mapping these “fragile ecosystems” is essential for the 2026 environment syllabus.
| New Ramsar Site | Location | Key Biodiversity/Features |
| Patna Bird Sanctuary | Etah, Uttar Pradesh | A critical stopover for migratory birds; home to endangered avifauna and desert foxes. |
| Chhari-Dhand | Kutch, Gujarat | A seasonal wetland in the Rann of Kutch; habitat for caracal, desert cats, and wolves. |
Mapping Fact: India’s Ramsar network has grown by 276% since 2014, currently totaling 98 sites.
2. Strategic Infrastructure: High-Speed Rail Corridors
Budget 2026 has announced 7 new High-Speed Rail Corridors to decentralize growth. Mapping these is vital for the “Transport and Urbanization” section.
- Primary Corridors to Map:
- Mumbai–Pune–Hyderabad
- Hyderabad–Bengaluru–Chennai
- Chennai–Bengaluru
- Delhi–Varanasi–Siliguri (Connecting North India to the gateway of the North-East).
3. Science & Research Infrastructure
The government is mapping out “Mega Science” facilities in strategic high-altitude locations.
- National Large Solar Telescope: Being set up near Pangong Lake, Ladakh.
- 30-metre National Large Optical Telescope: A key strategic and scientific mapping point for the Himalayan region.
4. Cultural & Heritage Circuits (Budget 2026)
The Buddhist Circuit and Ancient Archaeological Sites are receiving specialized funding for visitor infrastructure.
- Archaeological Mapping Points:
- Lothal & Dholavira (Gujarat) (Harappan sites).
- Rakhigarhi (Haryana).
- Leh Palace (Ladakh).
- North-East Buddhist Circuit: Focuses on connecting heritage sites across the Seven Sisters to boost pilgrim tourism.
Summary Mapping Checklist
| Category | Mapping Highlight | Current 2026 Context |
| New Wetland Hub | Chhari-Dhand | Kutch, Gujarat. |
| Rail Connectivity | Varanasi–Siliguri | New high-speed link to NE India. |
| Solar Science | Pangong Lake Hub | New Large Solar Telescope. |
| Oldest Site Development | Rakhigarhi | Major Harappan site upgrade. |
Mapping Brief
BUDGET 2026 & ECOLOGICAL UPDATESSeven new corridors are slated for development, including the strategic Delhi–Varanasi–Siliguri link, serving as a rapid gateway to North-East India.
Focus on Harappan nodes like Lothal and Dholavira, alongside major upgrades to Rakhigarhi (HR) and the Leh Palace (Ladakh).
Dedicated infrastructure to connect historical Buddhist sites across the Seven Sisters, boosting spiritual tourism and regional connectivity.