IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 11 Feb 2026
NCERT History: Class 9 Chapter-2 (Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution)
This chapter, “Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution”, explores the rise of socialist ideas in Europe and the dramatic transformation of Russia from an autocracy into the world’s first socialist state.
1. The Age of Social Change
The French Revolution opened the possibility of dramatic change in society, leading to three distinct political perspectives in Europe:
- Liberals:
- Sought a nation that tolerated all religions.
- Opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers and argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government.
- Stressed the importance of a judiciary independent of rulers and officials.
- They were not “democrats” because they did not believe in universal adult franchise; they felt only men of property should vote and did not want the vote for women.
- Radicals:
- Wanted a government based on the majority of a country’s population.
- Supported women’s suffragette movements.
- Opposed the privileges of great landowners and wealthy factory owners.
- While not against the existence of private property, they disliked the concentration of property in the hands of a few.
- Conservatives:
- Generally opposed the idea of change in the eighteenth century.
- By the nineteenth century, they accepted that some change was inevitable but believed the past had to be respected and change should be brought about through a slow process.
2. The Coming of Socialism to Europe
Socialists were well-known for their radical ideas by the mid-nineteenth century, primarily characterized by their opposition to private property.
- Opposition to Private Property: Socialists viewed private property as the root of all social ills because property owners were concerned only with personal gain rather than the welfare of those who made the property productive.
- Visions of the Future:
- Robert Owen: A leading English manufacturer who sought to build a cooperative community called “New Harmony” in Indiana (USA).
- Louis Blanc: In France, he wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises.
- Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Marx argued that industrial society was “capitalist” and that the profit of capitalists was produced by workers. He believed workers had to overthrow capitalism and private property to construct a radically socialist society where all property was socially controlled (Communism).
3. The Russian Empire in 1914
In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its vast empire, which included modern-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus.
- Economic Conditions:
- Russia was an agrarian economy; about 85% of the population earned their living from agriculture, a much higher proportion than in France or Germany.
- Cultivators produced for the market as well as for their own needs, and Russia was a major exporter of grain.
- Industrial Conditions:
- Industry was found in small pockets, primarily in St. Petersburg and Moscow.
- Much of the production was done in craft workshops, but large factories existed alongside them, many of which were set up in the 1890s when Russia’s railway network expanded and foreign investment increased.
- Social Divisions:
- Workers were a divided social group, often maintaining strong links with the villages they came from.
- They were divided by skill; metalworkers, for example, considered themselves “aristocrats” among workers.
- Despite divisions, workers united to strike (stop work) when they disagreed with employers about dismissals or work conditions.
4. Socialism in Russia
All political parties were illegal in Russia before 1914.
- Social Democratic Workers Party: Founded in 1898 by socialists who respected Marx’s ideas. It was later divided into two groups:
- Bolsheviks: Led by Vladimir Lenin, they thought that in a repressive society like Tsarist Russia, the party should be disciplined and control the number and quality of its members.
- Mensheviks: Thought that the party should be open to all, as in Germany.
- Socialist Revolutionary Party: Formed in 1900, they struggled for peasants’ rights and demanded that land belonging to nobles be transferred to peasants.
5. The 1905 Revolution
Russia was an autocracy where the Tsar was not subject to parliament.
- Bloody Sunday: In 1905, a procession of workers led by Father Gapon reached the Winter Palace to present a petition. They were attacked by police; over 100 workers were killed and 300 wounded.
- Consequences: The events triggered strikes across the country, lead to the creation of the first Duma (an elected consultative parliament), and marked the start of widespread revolutionary activity.
6. The First World War and the Russian Empire
In 1914, war broke out between two European alliances: the Central Powers (Germany, Austria, Turkey) and the Allied Powers (France, Britain, Russia).
- Impact on Russia:
- Russian armies suffered heavy defeats in Germany and Austria between 1914 and 1916.
- The war led to 7 million casualties by 1917 and created 3 million refugees in Russia.
- The war caused severe labor shortages and food crises; by the winter of 1916, riots at bread shops were common.
7. The Revolutions of 1917
- The February Revolution: In February 1917, food shortages led to a lockout at a factory in Petrograd, followed by a series of strikes. The Tsar abdicated on March 2, and a Provisional Government was formed by Soviet and Duma leaders.
- The October Revolution: As the Provisional Government’s power declined and Bolshevik influence grew, Lenin organized an uprising. On October 24, the uprising began; by nightfall, the city was under Bolshevik control and the ministers had surrendered.
8. Changes after October and the Civil War
- Bolshevik Reforms: Most industry and banks were nationalized in November 1917. Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
- The Civil War: The Bolshevik uprising was opposed by “Whites” (pro-Tsarists) and “Greens” (Socialist Revolutionaries), supported by French, British, and American troops. The Bolsheviks eventually won by 1920, aided by non-Russian nationalities and Muslim jadidists.
- Stalin’s Collectivisation: To solve grain shortages, Stalin forced peasants into collective farms (kolkhoz) starting in 1929. Those who resisted were severely punished, deported, or exiled.
Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
Bolsheviks
Lenin’s disciplined majority faction that advocated for a centralized revolutionary party.
Bloody Sunday
1905 massacre of peaceful workers at the Winter Palace, sparking nationwide strikes.
Kolkhoz
Collective farms where peasants were forced to pool land and labor under Stalin’s rule.
⚖️Indian Polity: Subordinate Courts (Articles 233–237)
The Subordinate Courts are called so because they are placed under the administrative and judicial superintendence of the High Court of the respective state.
Article 233: Appointment of District Judges
- Mandate: The appointment, posting, and promotion of district judges in any State are made by the Governor of the State in consultation with the High Court exercising jurisdiction in relation to such State.
- Eligibility: A person not already in the service of the Union or the State shall only be eligible to be appointed as a district judge if he has been for not less than seven years an advocate or a pleader and is recommended by the High Court for appointment.
Article 233A: Validation of Certain Appointments
- Context: This was added by the 20th Amendment Act (1966).
- Mandate: It validates the appointments of, and judgments delivered by, certain district judges which were otherwise considered occupied or delivered irregularly due to procedural technicalities. It acts as a “saving clause” for past judicial actions.
Article 234: Recruitment of Persons (Other than District Judges)
- Mandate: This article covers the “Judicial Service” below the rank of District Judge (Civil Judges, Magistrates).
- Process: Appointments are made by the Governor of the State in accordance with rules made by him after consultation with the State Public Service Commission and the High Court.
Article 235: Control over Subordinate Courts
- Mandate: This is the most powerful article for the High Court. It vests the “Control” over district courts and courts subordinate thereto in the High Court.
- Scope of Control: This includes the posting, promotion, and grant of leave to persons belonging to the judicial service of a State and holding any post inferior to the post of district judge.
- Protection: However, this article ensures that a person’s right of appeal against disciplinary actions remains intact according to the conditions of their service.
Article 236: Interpretation (Definitions)
This article provides the legal definitions for terms used in this chapter:
- “District Judge”: Includes judges of a city civil court, additional district judge, joint district judge, assistant district judge, chief judge of a small cause court, chief presidency magistrate, and others.
- “Judicial Service”: Means a service consisting exclusively of persons intended to fill the post of district judge and other civil judicial posts inferior to the post of district judge.
Article 237: Application to Certain Class of Magistrates
- Mandate: The Governor may, by public notification, direct that the provisions of this chapter (Articles 233–236) shall apply to any class of magistrates in the State.
- Purpose: This allows the State to bring executive magistrates or other special judicial officers under the same protective and administrative umbrella as the regular judicial service.
📊 Summary Table for Quick Revision
| Article | Key Subject | Authority Involved |
| 233 | Appointment of District Judges | Governor + High Court |
| 234 | Recruitment of Lower Judiciary | Governor + SPSC + High Court |
| 235 | Control over Subordinate Courts | Vested in the High Court |
| 236 | Definitions | Defines “District Judge” & “Service” |
| 237 | Application to Magistrates | Governor’s Notification |
Subordinate Courts
Validation (233A)
Acts as a “saving clause” to validate past appointments and judgments otherwise hampered by technicalities.
Magistrates (237)
Governor may direct that provisions of this chapter apply to any class of Magistrates in the State.
HC Supervision
The High Court maintains both judicial and administrative superintendence to ensure judicial independence.
“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (11-February-2026)
Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for February 11, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.
1. Approaching the AI Surge: Global Consequences
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Science & Technology; IT & Computers; Economy) and GS Paper 2 (Governance).
Context: An analysis of the impending “AI surge” and whether human institutions, ethics, and legal frameworks can keep pace with the exponential growth of artificial intelligence.
Key Points:
- The Hardware Frontier: The surge is driven by massive investments in compute power, with projections of AI data centers requiring energy equivalent to small nations.
- Economic Displacement: While AI promises productivity gains, the editorial warns of a “hollowing out” of mid-level cognitive jobs, particularly in coding, legal research, and content creation.
- The Trust Deficit: The proliferation of sophisticated deepfakes and AI-generated misinformation is threatening the integrity of democratic processes and personal security.
- Strategic Sovereignty: Global power is increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few “AI superpowers” (nations and corporations), creating a new digital divide for the Global South.
UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Industrial Revolution 4.0,” “Digital Ethics,” and “Technology Governance.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Energy and Sustainability: The editorial highlights the “hidden environmental cost” of AI, noting that training a single large language model can consume as much water as 3,000 people use in a year.
- Regulatory Lag: Current legislative efforts (like the EU AI Act or India’s proposed Digital India Act) are often reactive; the piece advocates for “anticipatory governance” that builds safety into the design phase.
- Human-Centric AI: The goal should not be the replacement of human agency but “augmented intelligence,” where AI tools are used to solve complex problems in climate change, healthcare, and resource management.
2. Bias Charge: The Motion to Remove the Speaker
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Parliament and State Legislatures—Structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers & privileges).
Context: In a rare parliamentary move, a united Opposition has submitted a notice for the removal of Lok Sabha Speaker Om Birla, alleging partisan conduct.
Key Points:
- Constitutional Basis: Under Article 94(c), the Speaker can be removed by a resolution passed by a majority of all the then members of the Lok Sabha, provided 14 days’ notice is given.
- Allegations of Bias: The Opposition cites the frequent muting of microphones, the “selective” expunging of remarks by the Leader of the Opposition, and the passing of the Motion of Thanks without a PM reply.
- The Speaker’s Defense: The Treasury benches argue the Speaker has acted within his rules-based discretion to maintain order amidst “unprecedented disruptions.”
- Procedural Impasse: The motion adds to the ongoing friction in the House, which has seen several days of total washout during the current session.
UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Parliamentary Procedures,” “Role and Neutrality of the Speaker,” and “Legislative Accountability.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Institutional Integrity: The Speaker is the “linchpin” of parliamentary democracy; the editorial argues that when the Speaker’s neutrality is questioned, the legitimacy of the entire legislative process is at stake.
- Precedents: Such motions are extremely rare in Indian history (e.g., against G.V. Mavalankar in 1954); they typically serve as a “political signal” even if they lack the numbers to pass.
- Role of Convention: The piece suggests that the current crisis stems from a breakdown of informal conventions and consultation between the Speaker and the Opposition.
3. Textile Trade: The U.S.-Bangladesh Deal and Indian Exporters
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy; Mobilization of resources; Growth and development) and GS Paper 2 (Bilateral relations).
Context: A new preferential trade arrangement between the U.S. and Bangladesh for garment exports has raised concerns among Indian textile manufacturers.
Key Points:
- Competitiveness Gap: The deal provides Bangladesh’s apparel exports with lower duties in the U.S. market, potentially undercutting Indian products which face 18% tariffs under the new U.S.-India trade deal.
- Input-Output Linkages: Bangladesh remains a major market for Indian cotton and yarn; however, if the U.S. deal mandates “local sourcing” of raw materials, Indian upstream exports could suffer.
- Sectoral Stress: The Indian textile industry, already struggling with high power costs and rigid labor laws, fears a loss of market share in its largest export destination.
- Regional Rebalancing: The U.S. move is seen as a way to support the interim government in Dhaka and provide an alternative to Chinese supply chains.
UPSC Relevance: Critical for “International Trade,” “Textile Sector Challenges,” and “South Asian Economic Integration.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Level Playing Field: Indian exporters are demanding “reciprocal parity,” arguing that India’s higher environmental and labor standards should be recognized as a value-addition.
- Diversification Necessity: The editorial suggests that India must move up the value chain into technical textiles and man-made fibers to reduce reliance on basic apparel segments.
- Strategic Trade Policy: The situation highlights the need for India to fast-track its own FTA negotiations with the UK and EU to provide alternative “duty-free” outlets for its exporters.
4. Conflict in Manipur: The Ukhrul Standoff
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Internal Security; Role of external state and non-state actors) and GS Paper 2 (Governance).
Context: Fresh violence in Manipur’s Ukhrul district has led to the suspension of internet services and the imposition of a curfew, reflecting the fragile security situation.
Key Points:
- Territorial Friction: The latest clash involves disputes over land and local jurisdiction between the Tangkhul Naga and Kuki-Zo communities.
- Digital Blackout: The internet ban is intended to prevent the spread of inflammatory content and rumors that could trigger retaliatory violence in other districts.
- State Capacity: Despite the return of a popular government, the state machinery appears overstretched in managing multiple ethnic fault lines (Meitei-Kuki and Naga-Kuki).
- Naga Peace Process: Tensions in Naga-dominated areas like Ukhrul complicate the broader “Framework Agreement” talks between the Centre and Naga groups.
UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Internal Security in the Northeast,” “Ethnic Conflicts,” and “Crisis Management.”
Detailed Analysis:
- The Shadow of Buffer Zones: Security analysts suggest that the creation of “buffer zones” has inadvertently led to “fortification” by different communities, making inter-community movement a trigger for violence.
- Role of Civil Society: The failure of community elders and civil society organizations to broker peace indicates a “radicalization of the middle ground” in the state.
- Governance Vacuum: The editorial notes that while security forces can “contain” violence, only a sustained political dialogue can “resolve” the underlying grievances.
5. Dry vs. Wet: The Science of Rocket Rehearsals
Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Science & Technology; Space Technology).
Context: An educational feature explaining the difference between “Dry Dress Rehearsals” and “Wet Dress Rehearsals” (WDR) in modern space missions like NASA’s SLS and ISRO’s Gaganyaan.
Key Points:
- Dry Dress Rehearsal: A full-scale simulation of the launch countdown without loading any fuel; it tests communication, logic flows, and decision-making handoffs.
- Wet Dress Rehearsal (WDR): The final, most critical test where the rocket is fueled with actual cryogenic propellants (liquid oxygen/hydrogen) to check for leaks under extreme cold.
- Cryogenic Challenges: Only a WDR can reveal “cryo-leaks” in seals or valves that only appear when components shrink due to the -183°C to -253°C temperatures.
- Risk Mitigation: These rehearsals allow teams to “fail safely” on the ground, ensuring that logical errors or hardware glitches are caught before the point of no return.
UPSC Relevance: Important for “Space Mission Procedures,” “Cryogenic Engine Technology,” and “Scientific Safety Protocols.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Statistical Significance: Modern rockets are so complex that nearly 40% of all launch scrubs occur due to issues identified during or just after a WDR.
- Cost of Failure: With missions costing billions, the “insurance” provided by a successful WDR is indispensable for space agencies and private players like SpaceX or Blue Origin.
- ISRO’s Precision: As India prepares for manned missions (Gaganyaan), the mastery of “integrated rehearsals” is the final frontier in ensuring human safety in space.
Editorial Analysis
FEBRUARY 11, 2026Data centers now rival small nations in power needs. Focus on Anticipatory Governance to manage cognitive job displacement.
U.S.-Bangladesh apparel deal undercuts Indian exports. Sector faces stress as 18% Tariffs weigh on Indian cotton and yarn markets.
WDR identifies Cryo-leaks at -253°C. Critical “fail safe” protocol where 40% of launch scrubs are preempted.
Institutional Neutrality
Mapping:
Today’s mapping notes focus on the global circulatory systems of our planet—rivers and lakes. These are critical for your UPSC & PCS Exams notes, as they form the basis for international borders, climate regulation, and civilizations.
1. Major Rivers of the World
Rivers are often categorized by length, discharge volume, or strategic transboundary importance.
Continental Leaders (Longest Rivers)
| Continent | River | Length (Approx) | Significance |
| Africa | Nile | 6,650 km | Longest in the world; flows North into the Mediterranean. |
| South America | Amazon | 6,400 km | Largest by discharge volume; crosses the largest rainforest. |
| Asia | Yangtze | 6,300 km | Longest in Asia; flows entirely within China. |
| North America | Mississippi | 6,275 km | Forms a “Bird-foot” delta in the Gulf of Mexico. |
| Europe | Volga | 3,530 km | Longest in Europe; drains into the landlocked Caspian Sea. |
| Australia | Murray-Darling | 3,672 km | Primary river system of the Australian continent. |
Strategic Mapping Points
- The Equator Crosser: The Congo River (Africa) is the only major river to cross the Equator twice. It is also the world’s deepest river (over 220m).
- The “Sorrow” Rivers: The Yellow River (Huang He) in China is known for its devastating floods and massive silt load.
- Transboundary Conflicts: Focus on the Mekong (SE Asia), Brahmaputra (China-India-Bangladesh), and Nile (Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam issues) for International Relations (IR) mapping.
2. Major Lakes of the World
Lakes are the “thermometers” of the Earth’s health. For 2026, focus on the distinction between area, volume, and salinity.
The Global “Top 5” by Area
- Caspian Sea (Saltwater): The largest landlocked body of water. Borders 5 countries: Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Azerbaijan.
- Lake Superior (Freshwater): Largest freshwater lake by surface area (USA/Canada).
- Lake Victoria (Freshwater): Largest tropical lake; source of the White Nile (Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania).
- Lake Huron: Part of the North American Great Lakes system.
- Lake Michigan: The largest lake located entirely within one country (USA).
Special Categories for Mapping
- Deepest & Oldest: Lake Baikal (Russia). It holds 20% of the world’s unfrozen surface freshwater.
- Longest Freshwater Lake: Lake Tanganyika (Africa). It stretches across four countries: Tanzania, DR Congo, Burundi, and Zambia.
- Highest Navigable Lake: Lake Titicaca (Andes; Peru/Bolivia border).
- Lowest Point on Earth: The Dead Sea (Israel/Jordan). It is nearly 10 times saltier than the ocean.
Summary Mapping Checklist
| Record | Name | Location |
| Longest River | Nile | Africa |
| Largest Lake (Area) | Caspian Sea | Eurasia |
| Deepest Lake | Lake Baikal | Russia |
| Double Equator Crosser | Congo River | Africa |
| Lowest Lake | Dead Sea | West Asia |
Mapping Brief
GLOBAL RIVERS & LAKESThe Caspian Sea remains the largest landlocked body. Lake Superior is the freshwater leader by area, while Lake Victoria serves as the tropical source of the White Nile.
Lake Baikal (Russia) is the deepest and oldest, holding 20% of global unfrozen freshwater. The Dead Sea marks Earth’s lowest point and highest salinity.
Located on the Peru-Bolivia border, Lake Titicaca is the world’s highest navigable lake, while Tanganyika is the longest freshwater body.