IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 9 Feb 2026
NCERT History: Class 8 Chapter-12 (India After Independence)
This chapter, “India After Independence”, examines the immense challenges faced by the newly independent nation and the steps taken to build a modern, democratic, and unified India.
1. Immediate Challenges of a New Nation
When India became independent in August 1947, it faced a series of monumental challenges that threatened its stability.
The Refugee Crisis
- Mass Migration: As a result of Partition, approximately 8 million refugees arrived in India from what became Pakistan.
- Rehabilitation: The government faced the immediate task of finding homes and providing jobs for these millions of displaced people.
The Integration of Princely States
- Political Fragmentation: There were almost 500 princely states, each ruled by a Maharaja or a Nawab.
- Unification: Each of these rulers had to be persuaded to join the new nation to ensure a unified India.
Economic and Social Divisions
- Population Size: In 1947, India’s population was large, totaling almost 345 million people.
- Deep Divisions: The population was deeply divided between high castes and low castes, the majority Hindu community and other religious minorities, and various linguistic groups.
- Poverty: Agriculture was the primary livelihood, and if the monsoon failed, millions of farmers and non-farm workers (like weavers and barbers) would go hungry.
2. Framing the Constitution
Between December 1946 and November 1949, approximately 300 Indians met in a series of sessions as part of the Constituent Assembly to frame the nation’s political future. The Constitution was adopted on January 26, 1950.
Key Features of the Constitution
- Universal Adult Franchise: One of the most significant features was granting the right to vote in state and national elections to all Indians above the age of 21 (now 18). This was a revolutionary step, as even in countries like the UK and US, this right had been granted in stages.
- Equality Before the Law: The Constitution guaranteed equality to all citizens regardless of their caste or religious affiliation.
- Safeguards for the Disadvantaged:
- Abolition of Untouchability: The practice of untouchability, described as a “slur and a blot” on India, was abolished.
- Reservations: A percentage of seats in legislatures and government jobs were reserved for the lowest castes (Harijans) and Adivasis (Scheduled Tribes) to compensate for centuries of discrimination.
The Division of Powers
To balance the authority of the Central government and the States, the Constitution created three lists of subjects:
- Union List: Includes taxes, defense, and foreign affairs; these are the sole responsibility of the Center.
- State List: Includes education and health; these are primarily the responsibility of the States.
- Concurrent List: Includes forests and agriculture; both the Center and States have joint responsibility for these.
3. The Creation of Linguistic States
Initially, Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy PM Vallabhbhai Patel were reluctant to divide the country further on linguistic lines, fearing it would lead to more conflict after the trauma of Partition.
- Protests for Statehood: Strong protests emerged from Kannada, Malayalam, and Marathi speakers.
- The Case of Andhra: The strongest protest came from Telugu speakers in the Madras Presidency.
- Potti Sriramulu: He went on a hunger strike demanding a separate state for Telugu speakers and died after 58 days.
- First Linguistic State: Following his death and subsequent riots, the government was forced to create the state of Andhra on October 1, 1953.
- States Reorganisation Commission: In 1956, the commission recommended redrawing state boundaries based on major languages like Bengali, Tamil, Malayalam, and Punjabi.
4. Planning for Economic Development
Lifting India out of poverty through modern technical and industrial development was a primary goal.
- The Planning Commission: Set up in 1950 to design and execute policies for economic growth.
- The Mixed Economy Model: India adopted a model where both the State and the private sector would play important and complementary roles in production and job creation.
- The Second Five Year Plan (1956): This plan focused heavily on building heavy industries (such as steel) and constructing massive dams like Bhakra Nangal.
5. The Nation after Sixty Years (A Review)
On August 15, 2007, India celebrated 60 years of independence.
Successes
- Unity and Democracy: Contrary to foreign predictions that India would break up or fall under military rule, it remained a single, united, and democratic country.
- Democratic Institutions: India maintains a free press, an independent judiciary, and regular elections.
Failures
- Social Inequality: Deep divisions persist, and Dalits (formerly untouchables) still face violence and discrimination in many parts of the country.
- The Wealth Gap: The gap between the rich and the poor has widened; while some enjoy luxury and expensive schools, others continue to live in poverty in slums or rural areas without basic facilities.
India After Independence
Concurrent List
Subjects like forest and agriculture where both Center and States have joint responsibility.
Mixed Economy
Development model where both State and private sectors play complementary roles.
Harijans
A term used for the lowest castes, for whom seats were reserved in legislatures.
⚖️Indian Polity: The Supreme Court (Art 124-147): Appointment & Qualification
The Judiciary in India is a single, integrated system, with the Supreme Court (SC) at the apex. Unlike the federal systems of the USA, where there are separate sets of laws for the Union and States, the Indian Supreme Court enforces both Central and State laws.
The Supreme Court of India (Articles 124–147)
The Supreme Court was inaugurated on January 28, 1950, replacing the Federal Court of India established under the Government of India Act, 1935.
1. Composition and Appointment (Article 124)
- Strength: Currently, the SC consists of 34 judges (1 Chief Justice + 33 other judges). The power to increase the number of judges lies with Parliament.
- Appointment: Every judge of the SC is appointed by the President.
- The Collegium System: Judges are appointed after consultation with a “Collegium” consisting of the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and the four senior-most judges of the SC.
Qualifications for a Judge:
- Must be a citizen of India.
- Must have been a Judge of a High Court for at least 5 years.
- OR an Advocate of a High Court for at least 10 years.
- OR a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.
2. Tenure and Removal
- Tenure: A judge holds office until the age of 65 years. They can resign by writing to the President.
- Removal (Impeachment): A judge can be removed only by an order of the President based on a motion passed by both Houses of Parliament in the same session.
- Grounds: Proved misbehavior or incapacity.
- Majority Required: Special Majority (Majority of total membership + 2/3rd of members present and voting).
3. Jurisdictions of the Supreme Court
The SC has the widest jurisdiction of any court in the world.
A. Original Jurisdiction (Article 131)
The SC acts as an arbiter in disputes between:
- The Centre and one or more States.
- The Centre and any State(s) on one side and one or more States on the other.
- Two or more States.
B. Writ Jurisdiction (Article 32)
The SC is the “Guarantor and Protector” of Fundamental Rights. It can issue writs like Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, and Quo-Warranto.
C. Appellate Jurisdiction (Articles 132–134)
The SC is the highest court of appeal. It hears appeals against High Court judgments in:
- Constitutional matters.
- Civil matters.
- Criminal matters.
D. Advisory Jurisdiction (Article 143)
The President can seek the opinion of the SC on:
- A question of law or fact of public importance.
- Disputes arising out of pre-constitution treaties.
- Note: The SC’s opinion is not binding on the President.
4. Other Key Powers
- Court of Record (Article 129): The judgments of the SC are recorded for perpetual memory and testimony. It also has the power to punish for contempt of court.
- Judicial Review: The power to examine the constitutionality of legislative enactments and executive orders.
- Curative Petition: The final legal resort to reconsider a judgment after a review petition is dismissed (evolved in the Rupa Ashok Hurra v. Ashok Hurra case).
Summary Table
| Article | Key Power / Provision | Core Detail |
| 124 | Establishment | Appointment and Qualifications. |
| 129 | Court of Record | Power to punish for contempt. |
| 131 | Original Jurisdiction | Federal disputes (Centre vs States). |
| 136 | Special Leave Petition | Discretionary power to hear any appeal. |
| 141 | Law of the Land | SC decisions are binding on all courts. |
| 143 | Advisory Power | President seeking SC opinion. |
Appointment & Jurisdictions
Writ Power
Under Art. 32, SC is the guarantor of Fundamental Rights (Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, etc.).
Court of Record
Under Art. 129, judgments are recorded for testimony; includes power to punish for contempt.
SLP (Art. 136)
Discretionary power to hear any appeal against any judgment by any court or tribunal in India.
“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (9-February-2026)
Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for February 9, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.
1. Question and Answer: Parliamentary Accountability
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Parliament and State Legislatures—Structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers & privileges and issues arising out of these).
Context: The Lok Sabha recently departed from convention by adopting the Motion of Thanks to the President’s address without a reply from the Prime Minister.
Key Points:
- Unusual Departure: The Lok Sabha adopted the motion without the customary PM’s reply on February 5.
- Security Concerns: Speaker Om Birla stated he requested the PM not to attend due to “credible inputs” about potential disruptions or harm near the PM’s seat.
- Procedural Violations: Parliamentary rules require a debate on the Motion of Thanks to conclude with the PM’s reply; closing without it requires a specific resolution.
- Disallowed Speech: The Leader of the Opposition (LoP), Rahul Gandhi, was barred from citing excerpts from a book by former Army Chief General M.M. Naravane.
UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Parliamentary Procedures,” “Executive Accountability,” and “Role of the Speaker.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Erosion of Accountability: The debate and reply function as a core mechanism for holding the executive accountable; skipping it is viewed as a disturbing erosion of this norm.
- Evading Critical Issues: The book in question raises serious national security issues; the editorial argues that denying elected members the chance to discuss them is indefensible.
- Passing the Buck: The portions cited outside the House suggest a tendency of the political executive to evade decision-making by “passing the buck”.
2. A Social Media Ban Will Not Save Our Children
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Government policies and interventions; Issues arising out of their design and implementation) and GS Paper 1 (Social issues).
Context: Following a tragedy in Ghaziabad where three sisters ended their lives due to alleged screen addiction, there are growing calls for a social media ban for minors.
Key Points:
- Global Templates: Australia (December 2025) and Spain (February 2026) have moved to ban social media for those under 16.
- Technical Porosity: Such bans are easily bypassed via VPNs or can push users to the “dark web” where grooming and extremism thrive.
- Gender Inequality: A ban may calcify inequalities; data shows only 33.3% of Indian women use the Internet compared to 57.1% of men.
- Digital Lifeline: For queer, differently-abled, or rural youth, these platforms are often the only window to supportive communities.
UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Digital Rights,” “Mental Health Policy,” and “Technology Governance.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Moral Panic: Society often labels complex problems as “folk devils,” leading to disproportionate and symbolic crackdowns rather than solutions.
- Need for “Duty of Care”: Instead of bans, the editorial advocates for a robust digital competition law and legally enforceable “duty of care” obligations for platforms.
- Research Gap: India lacks longitudinal research on how social media shapes local children’s well-being across class, caste, and region.
3. Messaging Power: Scrutinising WhatsApp’s Policies
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability) and GS Paper 3 (Internal security; Challenges to internal security through communication networks).
Context: The Supreme Court is questioning Meta/WhatsApp over its 2021 update regarding user data sharing with Instagram and Facebook.
Key Points:
- Network Effect: WhatsApp’s dominance makes it practically impossible for individuals or businesses to function without being on the platform.
- CCI Penalty: The Competition Commission of India issued a ₹213.14 crore penalty for the “accept or cease” ultimatum regarding privacy changes.
- Inadequate Remedies: Allowing users to “opt out” is seen as ineffective at such a massive scale where “default power” leaves little real choice.
- Encryption Standards: The app’s adoption of end-to-end encryption established secure communication as a societal norm in India.
UPSC Relevance: Vital for “Data Privacy,” “Digital Competition Law,” and “Big Tech Regulation.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Transformation of Communication: WhatsApp has provided free telephony and messaging services that were prohibitively expensive before 2016.
- Legislative Lag: While the SC’s views are noted as correct, they require the support of a digital competition law, which has stalled since its 2024 draft.
- Advertising Pivot: As the platform transitions to an advertising model, its status as a ubiquitous utility demands the highest level of regulatory scrutiny.
4. Myanmar’s Military-Scripted Polls and India’s Bind
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (India and its neighborhood—relations; Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests).
Context: Five years after the 2021 coup, Myanmar’s military held “elections” between late 2025 and January 2026, which were won by the military-aligned USDP.
Key Points:
- Controlled Participation: Voting was permitted in only 265 of 330 townships; rural areas under resistance influence were largely excluded.
- Turnout Decline: Turnout fell to roughly 55% (from 70% in 2015/2020), reflecting widespread rejection of the scripted exercise.
- Credibility Deficit: The junta dissolved major opposition parties like the NLD and jailed senior leaders.
- Refugee Crisis: India currently hosts 90,100 displaced Myanmar nationals in Mizoram and Manipur.
UPSC Relevance: Critical for “Act East Policy,” “Regional Stability,” and “Non-traditional Security Threats.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Strategic Dilemma: India must manage ties with the regime for security/connectivity while supporting a democratic transition without legitimising the junta.
- Project Delays: Major initiatives like the Kaladan Multi-Modal Project and the Trilateral Highway face repeated delays due to frontier insecurity.
- Cyber Slavery: Emerging threats include cyber scam centres in border conflict zones; 2,165 Indians have been rescued from these networks since 2022.
5. Linguistic and Cultural Markers for Caste Enumeration
Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Governance) and GS Paper 1 (Social Empowerment).
Context: Scholar G.N. Devy suggests that mother tongues and cultural markers could solve the technical challenges of the upcoming 2027 caste census.
Key Points:
- Methodology Debate: Some advocate for an “open field” (used in 2011 SECC), while others prefer a “pre-compiled list” (used in Bihar’s survey).
- Data Condensation: The 2011 SECC returned 46 lakh caste names; linguistic modeling could filter these into a comprehensive, manageable list.
- DNT Alienation: Failing to separately count Denotified Tribes (DNTs) could alienate over 10 crore people.
- Reference Points: Anthropological Survey of India projects like “People of India” could serve as vital certification points.
UPSC Relevance: Significant for “Caste Census,” “Tribal Rights,” and “Social Statistics in Planning.”
Detailed Analysis:
- Mother Tongue Lead: The process could mirror the 2011 linguistic census, which distilled 19,000 mother tongues down to 1,369 verified languages.
- Shared Identity: Using the example of the Sansi/Kanjar community, Devy explains how different names across states can be linked through a shared language (Bhaktu) and ancestry.
- Open Scrutiny: This scientific model requires the government to keep data open for scrutiny by independent scholars.
Editorial Analysis
FEBRUARY 09, 2026Motion of Thanks adopted without PM’s reply on Security Grounds. Skipping the customary response is seen as a core erosion of executive accountability.
Growing calls for minor bans post-Ghaziabad tragedy. Technical porosity and Gender Inequality (only 33% women Internet users) suggest bans may backfire.
Using Mother Tongues to filter 46 lakh caste names. Linguistic modeling could solve the technical challenges of the upcoming 2027 Census.
Accountability
Mapping:
Todays mapping notes focus on Undivided Borders, Wetland Conservation Milestones, and Strategic Science Infrastructure.
1. Cartographic Diplomacy: The Undivided Map of India
A major highlight this week is the “Cartographic Message” in the India-US Interim Trade Agreement.
- Strategic Shift: The official map released by the US Trade Representative (USTR) depicts the entirety of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh—including Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) and Aksai Chin—as part of India.
- Significance: This marks a departure from typical US government maps that show these regions as disputed. For your website, locate Aksai Chin (claimed by China) and PoK to show users this “Symbolic Diplomatic Validation”.
2. Environmental Mapping: The 98 Ramsar Sites Tally
As of early February 2026, India has reached a landmark 98 Ramsar Sites, maintaining its lead in Asia.
| New Ramsar Site | District/State | Key Biodiversity |
| Patna Bird Sanctuary | Etah, Uttar Pradesh | A critical stopover for over 178 migratory bird species; known for Sarus Cranes. |
| Chhari-Dhand Wetland | Kutch, Gujarat | A seasonal desert wetland in the Banni grasslands; home to the Caracal, Desert Fox, and Grey Wolf. |
State Ranking: Tamil Nadu remains the national leader with 20 sites, followed by Uttar Pradesh with 11 sites.
3. Strategic Infrastructure: Solar Science in Ladakh
The high-altitude plateau of Ladakh is becoming a global hub for space and solar research.
- National Large Solar Telescope (NLST): Mapped at Pangong Lake, Ladakh. Its location is vital due to low atmospheric interference and high-altitude clarity.
- Aditya-L1 Observations: Early February 2026 marks the first “Announcement of Opportunity” cycle for scientists to utilize data from India’s solar mission.
4. Disaster Management: New Nationally Notified Disasters
The 16th Finance Commission (2026–31) has officially recommended mapping and funding for two new disaster categories.
- Heatwaves & Lightning: These are now included as nationally notified disasters.
- Mapping Requirement: For your geography notes, mark the “Lightning Corridor” (Eastern and Central India) and the “Heatwave Belt” (North-Western and Central India) as high-priority zones for SDRF funding.
Summary Mapping Checklist
| Category | Mapping Highlight | Key Location |
| Territorial Map | Undivided J&K and Ladakh | USTR Interim Trade Map. |
| Wetland Leader | Tamil Nadu (20 Sites) | South India. |
| Space Hub | Pangong Lake | Ladakh (NLST Site). |
| New Disaster Map | Lightning & Heatwaves | Central & NW India. |
Mapping Brief
UNDIVIDED BORDERS & STRATEGIC GRIDIndia leads Asia with 98 sites. Key updates include Patna Bird Sanctuary (UP) and the desert wetland Chhari-Dhand (GJ) in the Banni grasslands.
The National Large Solar Telescope (NLST) is mapped at Pangong Lake, Ladakh, chosen for its ultra-clear high-altitude atmosphere.
Early February 2026 marks the first scientific cycle for solar data analysis, solidifying Ladakh as India’s primary high-altitude space hub.