NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-4 (The Mughal Empire)

Chapter 4, “The Creation of an Empire: The Mughal Dynasty,” explores the rise, administration, and legacy of one of the most significant dynasties in Indian history.

1. Who were the Mughals?

The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers:

• Mother’s side: Descendants of Genghis Khan (died 1227), the Mongol ruler of China and Central Asia.
• Father’s side: Successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq, and modern-day Turkey.
• Identity: They preferred to be called Timurids rather than Mughals or Mongols, as the name “Mongol” was associated with the memory of Genghis Khan’s massacres and their Uzbek competitors.

2. Mughal Military Campaigns

• Babur (1526–1530): The first Mughal emperor, he seized Kabul in 1504 and later defeated Sultan Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, capturing Delhi and Agra.
• Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556): His reign was interrupted by Sher Shah Suri, who forced him to flee to Iran. He recaptured Delhi in 1555 with Safavid aid.
• Akbar (1556–1605): Became emperor at age 13. He expanded the empire across North India, Gujarat, Bengal, and the Deccan.
• Jahangir (1605–1627) and Shah Jahan (1627–1658): Continued military campaigns in the Deccan and against the Ahoms, Sikhs, and Mewar.
• Aurangzeb (1658–1707): The empire reached its farthest territorial extent under him, but his reign faced constant rebellions from the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Satnamis.

3. Mughal Traditions of Succession

• The Mughals did not follow primogeniture (where the eldest son inherits the entire estate).
• Instead, they practiced the Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance, which involved dividing the inheritance among all the sons. This often led to civil wars among brothers for the throne.

4. Mansabdars and Jagirdars

As the empire expanded, the Mughals recruited diverse bodies of officials:

• Mansabdars: This term refers to an individual who holds a mansab (a position or rank).
• Zat: Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called zat. The higher the zat, the more prestigious the noble’s position and the larger his salary.
• Military Responsibility: Mansabdars were required to maintain a specified number of sawar (cavalrymen).
• Jagirs: Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs, which were somewhat like iqtas. Unlike muqtis, most mansabdars did not reside in or administer their jagirs; they only had rights to the revenue collected by their servants.

5. Zabt and Zamindars

The main source of income for the Mughal Empire was tax on the produce of the peasantry.

• Zamindars: The Mughals used one term—zamindars—to describe all intermediaries, whether they were local headmen of villages or powerful chieftains.
• Todar Mal’s Revenue System: Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey of crop yields, prices, and areas cultivated for a 10-year period (1570–1580).
• Zabt: Based on this data, tax was fixed on each crop in cash. Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of revenue rates; this system was known as zabt.

6. Akbar’s Policies and “Sulh-i Kul”

Abul Fazl wrote a three-volume history of Akbar’s reign titled Akbarnama, the third volume of which is the Ain-i Akbari.

• Administration: The empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by a subadar who exercised both political and military functions.
• Religious Tolerance: Akbar’s discussions with various religious scholars led to the idea of sulh-i kul or “universal peace”. This system of ethics—focusing on honesty, justice, and peace—did not discriminate between people of different religions in his realm.

7. The Empire in the 17th Century and After

By the end of the 17th century, the efficiency of the Mughal administration began to decline.

• Economic Disparity: While the empire was known for its great wealth, there was enormous poverty alongside it. A small number of high-ranking mansabdars (only 445 out of 8,000) received 61.5% of the total estimated revenue of the empire.
• Decline: As the authority of the emperor declined, governors of provinces like Hyderabad and Awadh consolidated their own power and constituted new dynasties, though they continued to recognize the Mughal emperor in Delhi as their overlord.

---

⚖️Indian Polity: Part IV: Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 36–41)

The Directive Principles are the “Instrument of Instructions” (a term from the Government of India Act, 1935) that guide the government in policy-making. They aim to transform India from a “Police State” into a Welfare State.

Key Characteristics

• Constitutional Position: Part IV, Articles 36 to 51.
• Source: Borrowed from the Irish Constitution.
• Objective: Achieving Social and Economic Democracy.
• Nature: Non-justiciable. You cannot sue the government if they fail to meet a directive, but they are “fundamental in the governance of the country” (Art. 37).

Article 36: Definition of “State”

For the purposes of DPSP, the “State” has the same meaning as it does in Article 12 (Fundamental Rights).

• It includes the Government and Parliament of India, State Governments, Legislatures, and all local or other authorities (like Municipalities or LIC) within the territory of India.

Article 37: Application of Principles

• This article clarifies the legal status of DPSP.
• Two Key Provisions:
  • Non-enforceable: These principles are not enforceable by any court.
  • Fundamental Governance: Despite being non-justiciable, it is the duty of the State to apply these principles when making laws.

Article 38: State to Secure a Social Order

This is considered the “Key” article of DPSP as it defines the goal of a Welfare State. It has two specific dimensions:

• 38(1): The State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order in which Justice—Social, Economic, and Political—shall inform all institutions of national life.
• 38(2): Added by the 44th Amendment (1978), it directs the State to minimize inequalities in income, status, facilities, and opportunities among individuals and groups.

Article 39: Certain Principles of Policy to be Followed by the State

This article is a collection of six specific goals (39a to 39f).

• 39(a): Right to adequate means of livelihood for all citizens.
• 39(b): Equitable distribution of material resources of the community for the common good.
• 39(c): Prevention of concentration of wealth and means of production.
• 39(d): Equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
• 39(e): Protection of health/strength of workers and avoiding abuse of children.
• 39(f): Opportunities for the healthy development of children (Added by 42nd Amendment).

Article 39A: Equal Justice and Free Legal Aid

• Origin: Inserted by the 42nd Amendment Act (1976).
• Mandate: The State must ensure that the legal system promotes justice on a basis of equal opportunity.
• Implementation: It specifically directs the State to provide Free Legal Aid so that no citizen is denied justice due to economic or other disabilities. This led to the enactment of the Legal Services Authorities Act (1987) and the establishment of NALSA (National Legal Services Authority).

Article 40: Organization of Village Panchayats

• Philosophy: Reflects the Gandhian Ideology of “Gram Swaraj.”
• Mandate: The State shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government.
• Implementation: This was finally given constitutional status via the 73rd Amendment Act (1992).

Article 41: Right to Work, Education, and Public Assistance

• This article focuses on social security. The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing:
  1. The Right to Work.
  2. The Right to Education.
  3. The Right to Public Assistance in cases of:
     • Unemployment
     • Old Age
     • Sickness
     • Disablement
     • “Undeserved want”
• Implementation: Schemes like MGNREGA and Old Age Pension schemes are direct results of Article 41.

Detailed Summary Table

Article	Category	Core Key-Word	Implementation Example
36	General	State Definition	Linked to Article 12
37	Nature	Non-Justiciable	Guidance for law-making
38	Welfare	Justice & Equality	Poverty Alleviation Schemes
39	Socialist	Distributive Justice	Equal Remuneration Act
39A	Justice	Free Legal Aid	NALSA / Lok Adalats
40	Gandhian	Panchayats	73rd Amendment Act
41	Welfare	Public Assistance	MGNREGA / Pension Schemes

---