NCERT History: Class 7 Chapter-2 (New Kings and Kingdoms)

Chapter 2, “New Kings and Kingdoms,” examines the emergence of powerful dynasties in the Indian subcontinent between the seventh and twelfth centuries.

1. The Emergence of New Dynasties

By the seventh century, big landlords or warrior chiefs, known as samantas, existed in different regions.

• Samantas were expected to bring gifts for their kings, be present in their courts, and provide military support.
• As samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta or maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a “circle” or region).
• Some samantas asserted independence from their overlords. For example, the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan were initially subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
• Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (“the golden womb”) to be “reborn” as a kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.
• Men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms, such as the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra, who gave up their traditional priestly professions to take up arms.

2. Administration in the Kingdoms

New kings often adopted high-sounding titles such as Maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings) and Tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds).

• Resource Collection: Kings shared power with samantas as well as associations of peasants, traders, and brahmans.
• Producers: Resources were obtained from peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans, who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced as “rent”.
• Revenue: In the Chola empire, inscriptions mention over 400 terms for different kinds of taxes, such as vetti (forced labour) and kadamai (land revenue).
• Usage of Wealth: These resources financed the king’s establishment, built temples and forts, and funded wars.
• Officials: Revenue collection positions were often hereditary and held by powerful families or close relatives of the king.

3. Prashastis and Land Grants

Prashastis contained glowing, often exaggerated accounts of rulers, depicting them as valiant, victorious warriors.

• They were composed by learned brahmans who occasionally helped in the administration.
• Kings rewarded brahmans with grants of land, which were recorded on copper plates.
• A unique source for the history of Kashmir is a long Sanskrit poem by Kalhana (12th century), who used inscriptions, documents, and eyewitness accounts to provide a critical view of rulers and their policies.

4. Warfare for Wealth

Dynasties often fought for control over specific prized areas.

• Tripartite Struggle: For centuries, rulers from the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj in the Ganga valley.
• Temple Targets: Rulers built large temples to demonstrate power; consequently, these temples were often the first targets during invasions.
• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni: From 997 to 1030 CE, he raided the subcontinent 17 times, targeting wealthy temples like Somnath in Gujarat. He used the looted wealth to create a splendid capital at Ghazni.
• Al-Biruni: Mahmud entrusted the scholar Al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent, known as the Kitab-ul-Hind.
• Chahamanas (Chauhans): They ruled over Delhi and Ajmer. Their most famous ruler was Prithviraja III (1168–1192), who defeated Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 but lost to him the following year.

5. A Closer Look: The Cholas

The Cholas rose to power in the south, moving from a small family of subordinates to a major empire.

• Rise to Power: Vijayalaya, from the ancient family of Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century.
• Rajaraja I: Considered the most powerful Chola ruler, he became king in 985 CE and expanded control over most of the region. His son, Rajendra I, continued these policies, raiding the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.
• Splendid Temples: The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram were architectural and sculptural marvels. Chola temples were not just places of worship but hubs of economic, social, and cultural life.
• Bronze Sculpture: Chola bronze images, mostly of deities and sometimes devotees, are considered among the finest in the world.

Agriculture and Irrigation

• The river Kaveri branches into small channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal; these channels provide fertile silt and moisture for agriculture, particularly rice.
• Large-scale agriculture developed in the fifth or sixth centuries as forests were cleared and land was levelled.
• Irrigation: Embankments were built to prevent flooding, and canals were constructed to carry water to fields. Methods included digging wells and constructing huge tanks to collect rainwater.

Administration of the Empire

• Ur: Settlements of peasants became prosperous with the spread of irrigation.
• Nadu: Groups of villages formed larger units called nadu, which performed administrative functions like dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
• Vellanvaga: Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government.
• Brahmadeya: Brahmans received land grants, leading to the emergence of numerous brahman settlements in the Kaveri valley.
• Sabha: Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent brahman landholders.
  • The Uttaramerur inscription details how the sabha was organized into committees (for irrigation, temples, gardens, etc.).
  • Members were chosen by lottery: names were written on palm leaf tickets, put into an earthenware pot, and picked out by a young boy.

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⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 32, 33, 34 and 35

Article 32 is the most important provision in the entire Constitution, while Articles 33, 34, and 35 deal with the parliament’s power to modify these rights in specific circumstances.

The Soul of the Constitution: Articles 32, 33, 34, & 35
Without a mechanism for enforcement, a list of rights is merely a collection of words. Article 32 provides that mechanism, ensuring that Fundamental Rights are “justiciable.”

1. Article 32: Right to Constitutional Remedies

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar famously described Article 32 as “the very soul of the Constitution and the very heart of it.” It provides the right to move the Supreme Court by appropriate proceedings for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights.

Key Characteristics

• A Fundamental Right itself: The right to seek remedy is not just a legal procedure but a fundamental right in itself.
• Basic Structure: The Supreme Court in the Fertilizer Corporation Kamgar Union case held that Article 32 is a basic feature of the Constitution; hence, it cannot be stripped away even by a Constitutional Amendment.
• Scope: It is only for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights (Part III), not for statutory or common law rights.

The Five Prerogative Writs

Under Article 32 (Supreme Court) and Article 226 (High Courts), the judiciary can issue specific orders called “Writs”:

1. Habeas Corpus (“To have the body”): An order to produce a detained person before the court to examine the legality of the detention. It protects individual liberty against arbitrary arrest.
2. Mandamus (“We command”): A command issued to a public official, lower court, or government body to perform a mandatory duty which they have failed to perform.
3. Prohibition (“To forbid”): Issued by a higher court to a lower court or quasi-judicial body to prevent it from exceeding its jurisdiction or acting contrary to natural justice.
4. Certiorari (“To be certified”): Issued to quash an order already passed by a lower court or tribunal. While Prohibition is preventive, Certiorari is both curative and preventive.
5. Quo-Warranto (“By what authority”): Issued to enquire into the legality of a person’s claim to a public office. It prevents illegal “usurpation” of public office by anyone.

2. Article 33: Power of Parliament to Modify Rights

Article 33 gives Parliament the power to restrict or abrogate the Fundamental Rights of specific groups to ensure the proper discharge of their duties and the maintenance of discipline.

Groups Covered

• Members of the Armed Forces.
• Members of the Paramilitary Forces.
• Police Forces.
• Intelligence Agencies and counter-intelligence forces.
• Telecommunication workers and others employed in these services.

Note: Only Parliament has the power to make these laws, not State Legislatures. These laws cannot be challenged in any court on the ground of contravention of any Fundamental Right.

3. Article 34: Restriction on Rights during Martial Law

Article 34 provides for the restriction of Fundamental Rights while Martial Law is in force in any area within the territory of India.

• Definition: The Constitution does not define “Martial Law,” but it refers to a situation where the military takes over the administration due to a breakdown of public order.
• Parliamentary Indemnity: Parliament can pass an “Act of Indemnity” to protect any government servant or person for any act done by them in connection with the maintenance of order during Martial Law.
• Difference from National Emergency: Unlike a National Emergency (Art. 352), Martial Law affects only Fundamental Rights and is restricted to a specific area.

4. Article 35: Legislation to Give Effect to Provisions

Article 35 ensures that the nature of Fundamental Rights and the punishments for their violation remain uniform throughout India. It grants the exclusive power to Parliament to make laws regarding specific rights.

• Exclusive Power of Parliament: Only Parliament (not State Legislatures) has the power to make laws regarding:
  • Prescription of residence as a condition for employment (Art. 16).
  • Empowering courts other than the SC/HC to issue writs (Art. 32).
  • Restricting rights for Armed Forces (Art. 33).
  • Indemnifying government servants during martial law (Art. 34).
• Punishments: Parliament alone has the power to prescribe punishment for acts declared as offenses under Part III (e.g., Untouchability under Art. 17 or Forced Labour under Art. 23).

Summary Table

Article	Theme	Key Takeaway
32	Constitutional Remedies	The “Heart and Soul”; allows for Writ petitions.
33	Armed Forces	Allows Parliament to limit rights for disciplined forces.
34	Martial Law	Restricts rights during military rule in specific areas.
35	Legislation Power	Ensures uniform enforcement of rights via Parliament.

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