NCERT History: Class 6 Chapter-9 (Vital Villages, Thriving Towns)

This chapter, “Vital Villages, Thriving Towns,” examines the growth of agriculture, the structure of village society, and the rise of early cities and trade networks in the Indian subcontinent.

1. Agricultural Revolution: Iron and Irrigation

The foundation of powerful kingdoms was the existence of flourishing villages. Two main factors drove agricultural growth starting about 2,500 years ago:

• Growing Use of Iron: While iron use began 3,000 years ago, its use expanded significantly 2,500 years ago. Tools included axes for clearing forests and the iron ploughshare, which was crucial for increasing production in heavy soils.
• Irrigation Works: Kings and rulers invested in irrigation to ensure certain crop production. These works included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.
• Economic Cycle: Increased production allowed farmers to pay taxes, which in turn funded the king’s armies and palaces.

2. Village Social Structure

Societies in both the North and South were clearly stratified into three main groups:

The Tamil South

• Vellalar: These were the large landowners.
• Uzhavar: Ordinary ploughmen.
• Kadaisiyar and Adimai: Landless labourers and slaves.

The Northern Subcontinent

• Grama Bhojaka: The village headman, often the largest landowner. The post was hereditary. He was powerful; he collected taxes for the king and functioned as a judge or policeman.
• Grihapatis: Independent farmers who were mostly smaller landowners.
• Dasa Karmakara: Men and women who did not own land and had to work on the fields of others.

Region	Category	Description
Southern (Tamil)	Vellalar	Large landowners.
	Uzhavar	Ordinary ploughmen.
	Kadaisiyar/Adimai	Landless labourers and slaves.
Northern	Grama bhojaka	Hereditary village headman and often the largest landowner; functioned as a tax collector, judge, and policeman.
	Grihapatis	Independent farmers, mostly small landowners.
	Dasa karmakara	Landless men and women who worked on others’ fields.

3. The Rise of Cities and Urban Life

Archaeologists and historians use several types of evidence to understand early cities:

• Jatakas: Stories composed by ordinary people and preserved by Buddhist monks, providing glimpses into city life.
• Archaeological Finds:
  • Ring Wells: Rows of pots or ceramic rings arranged on top of each other, used as toilets, drains, or garbage dumps in individual houses.
  • Punch-marked Coins: The earliest coins, in use for about 500 years, stamped with symbols on silver or copper.
• Sculpture: Scenes depicting daily life in towns, villages, and forests were carved to decorate gateways and pillars.

4. Cities with Specific Functions

Some cities became famous for specific roles:

• Mathura: An important settlement for over 2,500 years. It was a trade crossroads (North-West to East and North to South), a center for fine sculpture, and a religious hub for Buddhism, Jainism, and Krishna worship.
• Barygaza (Bharuch): A narrow gulf port where experienced local fishermen steered in ships. Imports included wine and gold/silver coins, while exports included Himalayan plants, ivory, silk, and cotton.
• Arikamedu: A coastal settlement in Puducherry. It was an international trade center where Roman goods like amphorae (wine jars) and Arretine Ware (stamped Italian pottery) were found.

5. Crafts and Commerce: The Shrenis

Craft production was highly organized, especially in cloth manufacture (centers like Varanasi and Madurai).

• Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): A hard, metallic-looking pottery with a mirror-like black shine.
• Shrenis: Associations formed by crafts persons and merchants.
  • They provided training and procured raw materials.
  • They organized trade and served as banks where the wealthy deposited money.
  • Interest from these deposits supported religious institutions like monasteries.
• Coins: Punch-marked coins, made of silver or copper and stamped with symbols, were the earliest coins used for about 500 years.

6. Rules for Spinning and Weaving

The Arthashastra provided strict guidelines for workshops:

• Widows, the differently-abled, and retired servants were employed to process wool, cotton, and silk.
• Women who could not leave home sent maid-servants to get raw materials.
• Officials were punished for misconduct, and women were fined for incomplete work.

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⚖️Indian Polity: Understanding Articles 17, 18 and 19

While Articles 17 and 18 remove the social barriers of the past, Article 19 provides the positive “freedoms” that allow a citizen to participate in a democracy.

1. Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability

Article 17 is a historic provision aimed at ending one of the most deep-rooted social evils in India. It is a “Social Revolution” encapsulated in a single sentence.

Key Legal Aspects

• Absolute Nature: Unlike most Fundamental Rights, Article 17 is absolute. There are no “reasonable restrictions.” It cannot be practiced under any pretext (religion, tradition, or philosophy).
• Self-Executing vs. Statutory Support: While the article declares the practice abolished, it does not prescribe punishments. For this, Parliament enacted:
  • The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955: Prescribes punishment for refusing admission to hospitals, temples, or shops based on “untouchability.”
  • SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: A more stringent law to prevent hate crimes and provide for special courts.
• Vertical and Horizontal Application: It is enforceable not just against the State, but also against private individuals.
• Case Law: In People’s Union for Democratic Rights v. Union of India, the SC held that it is the State’s constitutional obligation to take necessary steps to ensure these rights aren’t violated by anyone.

The “Untouchability” Definition: The Supreme Court has clarified that Article 17 does not cover social boycotts in general; it specifically targets the practice as it developed historically in the Indian caste system.

2. Article 18: Abolition of Titles

To maintain the democratic character of the Republic, the State is prohibited from creating a “nobility” or a class of citizens with superior status through titles.

The Four Prohibitions

1. No State Titles: The State cannot confer any title on any person (citizen or foreigner). Exceptions: Military and Academic distinctions (e.g., General, Major, Doctor, Professor).
2. Acceptance of Foreign Titles: No citizen of India can accept a title from any foreign state.
3. Foreigners in State Office: A foreigner holding an “office of profit” under the Indian Government cannot accept a foreign title without the President’s consent.
4. Foreign Presents/Emoluments: No person holding an office of profit can accept any gift or office from a foreign state without the President’s consent (to prevent foreign influence/corruption).

The Bharat Ratna Controversy

In Balaji Raghavan v. Union of India (1996), the Supreme Court ruled that:

• National awards (Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, etc.) are awards, not titles.
• They do not violate the principle of equality because they recognize “Merit.”
• Crucial Rule: They cannot be used as a prefix (before name) or suffix (after name). Doing so can lead to the forfeiture of the award.

3. Article 19: Protection of Six Fundamental Rights

Article 19 is considered the “Soul of the Constitution.” It guarantees basic democratic freedoms to citizens only (not foreigners or corporations).

The Six Freedoms [Art 19(1)]

1. Freedom of Speech and Expression: Includes the right to express views via writing, printing, or digital media. It also includes the Right to Information (RTI) and the Freedom of Press.
2. Freedom of Assembly: Right to assemble peacefully and without arms. (Does not include the right to strike).
3. Freedom of Association: Right to form unions, societies, or Co-operative Societies (97th Amendment).
4. Freedom of Movement: Right to move freely throughout the territory of India.
5. Freedom of Residence: Right to reside and settle in any part of the country.
6. Freedom of Profession: Right to practice any profession or carry on any occupation, trade, or business.

Note: Originally, there was a 7th right (Right to Property), but it was deleted by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978.

Reasonable Restrictions [Art 19(2) to 19(6)]

These rights are not absolute. The State can impose “Reasonable Restrictions” on specific grounds to balance individual liberty with social order.

Common Grounds for Restrictions:

• Sovereignty and Integrity of India.
• Security of the State.
• Friendly relations with foreign states.
• Public order, Decency, or Morality.
• Contempt of Court or Defamation.

Famous Case Law

• Bennett Coleman & Co. v. Union of India: Established that “Freedom of the Press” is an integral part of Freedom of Speech.
• Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): The Supreme Court struck down Section 66A of the IT Act, ruling that it unconstitutionally restricted the Freedom of Speech online.
• K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India: While discussing privacy, it reinforced that individual liberties under Article 19 are interconnected with Article 21 (Life).

Comparison Summary Table

Feature	Article 17	Article 18	Article 19
Primary Goal	Eradicate Social Stigma	Remove Class Hierarchy	Empower Individual Liberty
Applicability	Citizens & Non-citizens	Citizens & Non-citizens	Citizens Only
Exceptions	Absolute: No exceptions allowed.	Qualified: Military/Academic titles allowed.	Restricted: Subject to “Reasonable Restrictions.”

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