IAS PCS Mission 2026: Daily Study Material – 2 Jan 2026
NCERT History: Class 6 Chapter-2 (On the Trail of the Earliest People)
🏗️ Core Concept: Hunter-Gatherers
The earliest people in the subcontinent lived as far back as two million years ago. They are called hunter-gatherers because of the way they obtained their food:
- Hunting: They hunted wild animals and caught fish and birds.
- Gathering: They collected fruits, roots, nuts, seeds, leaves, stalks, and eggs.
- Survival Skills: Gathering required immense knowledge of which plants were edible (versus poisonous) and understanding the seasons when fruits ripened.
🚶 Why did they move? (The 4 Reasons)
Hunter-gatherers did not stay in one place; they were constantly on the move for these reasons:
- Resource Depletion: If they stayed too long, they would exhaust all available plant and animal food in that area.
- Following Prey: Animals move in search of prey or grass; hunters had to follow these movements to survive.
- Seasonal Changes: Plants and trees bear fruit in different seasons, requiring people to move accordingly.
- Water Scarcity: While some rivers are perennial (water all year), many are seasonal. People had to find new water sources during dry winters and summers.
🛠️ Technological Evolution: Stone Tools
Stone tools are the best-surviving evidence of the earliest people.
Tool Categorization by Time
- Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age): 2 million years ago to 12,000 years ago. This period covers 99% of human history.
- Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): 12,000 to 10,000 years ago. Characterized by Microliths (tiny stone tools) often stuck onto handles of bone or wood to make saws and sickles.
- Neolithic (New Stone Age): Beginning about 10,000 years ago.
Making Techniques
- Stone on Stone: Striking a “core” stone with a “hammer” stone to flake it into shape.
- Pressure Flaking: Placing the core on a firm surface and using a hammer stone on a piece of bone/stone to remove precise flakes.
📍 Important Archaeological Sites
Early people chose sites based on the availability of water (rivers/lakes) and good quality stone.
- Habitation Sites: Places where people lived, such as caves and rock shelters.
- Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh): Famous for natural caves that provided shelter from rain, heat, and wind.
- Factory Sites: Locations where stone was found and tools were made.
- Habitation-cum-factory Sites: Places where people lived for long spells specifically to manufacture tools.
- Hunsgi (Karnataka): A Paleolithic site where many tools were made from locally available limestone.
- Kurnool Caves (Andhra Pradesh): Traces of ash found here prove that early people used fire for light, cooking meat, and scaring animals.
🎨 Culture and Climate Change
- Rock Paintings: Found in Madhya Pradesh and Southern UP, showing wild animals drawn with great skill.
- Ostrich Evidence: Ostriches lived in India during the Palaeolithic period; eggshells with engravings and beads were found at Patne, Maharashtra.
- Environmental Shift (12,000 years ago): The world shifted to warmer conditions, leading to the development of grasslands. This increased the population of grass-eating animals (deer, goat, sheep) and led humans toward herding, rearing, and fishing.
NCERT History • Class-6
Chapter – 2
On the Trail of the Earliest People
Lithic Technology & Craft
Stone on Stone: One stone used as a hammer to flake the other into a tool.
Pressure Flaking: Core was placed on firm surface; hammer stone used to remove flakes for precise shapes.
Microliths: Tiny stone tools popularity during the Mesolithic period, often stuck onto handles of bone or wood.
Strategic Habitation Sites
Kurnool Caves: Evidence of Ash found here, suggesting the early use of fire for light and cooking.
Bhimbetka (MP): Famous for Rock Shelters with ancient paintings of wild animals drawn with great accuracy.
Hunsgi: Large number of tools found here; many were made from local Limestone.
Palaeolithic
2 million years ago to 12,000 years ago. Divided into Lower, Middle, and Upper.
Mesolithic
12,000 to 10,000 years ago. Characterized by environmental changes and Microliths.
Neolithic
Begins about 10,000 years ago. The stage of settled farming and polished tools.
Class-6 History Chapter-2 PDF
Complete Study Notes: On the Trail of the Earliest People
⚖️Indian Polity: Deep dive into the Keywords of the Preamble
1. SOVEREIGN (The Independent Authority)
The term ‘Sovereign’ implies that India is neither a dependency nor a dominion of any other nation. It is an independent State.
- Internal and External Freedom: India is free to conduct its own affairs. No outside power can dictate terms to the Government of India.
- The Commonwealth/UN Paradox: In 1949, India declared the continuation of her full membership of the Commonwealth of Nations. However, this is an extra-legal declaration and does not affect India’s sovereignty. Similarly, membership in the UN does not limit its power.
- Territorial Competence: Being a sovereign state, India has the legal capacity to:
- Acquire foreign territory (e.g., Goa, Pondicherry, Sikkim).
- Cede (give away) a part of its territory to a foreign state (e.g., 100th Amendment Act regarding the land boundary agreement with Bangladesh).
2. SOCIALIST (The Welfare Goal)
While the Indian Constitution always had a “socialist” tilt through the DPSP, the term was formally added by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.
- The Indian Model: Democratic Socialism:
- Unlike Communistic Socialism (State Socialism) which involves the nationalization of all means of production and the abolition of private property, India follows Democratic Socialism.
- It is based on a “Mixed Economy” where both public and private sectors coexist.
- Judicial Definition (Supreme Court): In the Samatha vs. State of Andhra Pradesh and Excel Wear vs. Union of India cases, the Court noted that:
- Democratic socialism aims to end poverty, ignorance, disease, and inequality of opportunity.
- Indian socialism is a unique blend of Marxism and Gandhism, leaning heavily towards Gandhian socialism.
- New Economic Policy (1991): The LPG (Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization) reforms have diluted the “statist” socialist tilt of India, making it more market-friendly while maintaining the welfare state objective.
3. SECULAR (The Neutral Protector)
The term ‘Secular’ was also added by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976. However, the Supreme Court ruled in 1974 that even if not mentioned, the “secular state” was always intended by the makers of the Constitution.
- The “Positive” Concept:
- Western Concept (Negative): Implies a “Wall of Separation”—complete divorce between the State and Religion.
- Indian Concept (Positive): All religions in our country (irrespective of their numerical strength) have the same status and support from the State. The State can interfere in religious matters for social reform (e.g., banning Triple Talaq or untouchability).
- Constitutional Infrastructure: Secularism is protected by Articles 25–28 (Right to Freedom of Religion).
- Basic Structure: In the S.R. Bommai vs. Union of India (1994) case, the Supreme Court held that Secularism is a “Basic Structure” of the Constitution, meaning it cannot be abolished even by a constitutional amendment.
📊 Comparison: Indian vs. Western Secularism
| Feature | Indian Secularism (Positive) | Western Secularism (Negative) |
| Relationship | Principled distance (State can intervene) | Strict separation (No State intervention) |
| Support | All religions supported equally by State | State is indifferent to religion |
| Focus | Rights of both individuals & communities | Primarily individual rights |
| Reform | State can initiate social/religious reform | State cannot dictate religious change |
Sovereign • Socialist • Secular
Sovereign
India is an independent authority. It is neither a Dependency nor a Dominion. It is free to conduct global affairs and acquire or cede territory.
Socialist
Rooted in Democratic Socialism. India follows a mixed economy aimed at ending poverty and inequality. It is a unique blend of Marxism & Gandhism, leaning heavily towards Gandhism.
Secular
Follows Positive Secularism: All religions enjoy equal status and support from the State. This is protected via Fundamental Rights under Articles 25–28.
“The Hindu” Editorial Analysis (02-January-2026)
Here is a detailed analysis of the The Hindu Editorials for January 2, 2026, categorized by syllabus relevance for UPSC preparation.
1. Is Housing Prohibitively Expensive?
- Syllabus: GS Paper 1 (Urbanization, their problems and their remedies) & GS Paper 3 (Economy).
- Context: A deep-dive discussion on the “unaffordability” of urban housing in India and the failure of current policy frameworks.
- Key Points:
- The Salary-Price Mismatch: In major Indian cities, the ‘House Price to Income’ ratio has crossed 10.0, making ownership impossible for the middle class.
- Ghettoization: High prices push the working class to the urban fringes, creating long commutes and “dormitory towns.”
- Policy Failure: The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) has focused on ‘ownership,’ but the experts argue for a ‘rental-first’ approach.
- UPSC Relevance: Essential for “Social Infrastructure,” “Urban Planning,” and “Inclusive Development.”
- Detailed Analysis:
- The Financialization of Housing: The article discusses how housing is no longer viewed as a “shelter” but as a “speculative asset” by investors, which artificially inflates prices even when inventory is unsold.
- RERA’s Limitations: While RERA (Real Estate Regulatory Authority) improved transparency and reduced fraud, it added to compliance costs which developers passed on to buyers, further reducing affordability.
- The Infrastructure Link: Experts suggest that until public transport (Metros/RRTS) becomes efficient, people will continue to fight for limited space in city centers, keeping prices high.
2. The Struggle for Dignified Healthcare
- Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Health; Issues relating to Vulnerable Sections).
- Context: Examining the systemic exclusion of transgender persons from the Indian healthcare system.
- Key Points:
- Clinical Insensitivity: Most medical professionals lack training in “Gender Affirmative Care,” leading to harassment of trans-patients.
- Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): The absence of peer-reviewed protocols for hormonal and surgical transitions.
- Legal Intervention: The Madras High Court’s recent push for a specialized curriculum in medical colleges.
- UPSC Relevance: Important for “Social Justice,” “Human Rights,” and “Medical Ethics.”
- Detailed Analysis:
- Barriers to Access: Even in a “progressive” state like Tamil Nadu, transpersons are often forced to use “deadnames” (former names) or face “misgendering” in hospitals, which discourages them from seeking life-saving treatments.
- The MBBS Gap: The editorial highlights a critical flaw—the Indian medical curriculum does not sufficiently cover the biological and psychological needs of the LGBTQIA+ community.
- Recommendation: The article calls for “Trans-Specific Clinics” in every district hospital to ensure privacy and dignity.
3. Lokpal and the Ethics of Public Expenditure
- Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (Governance) & GS Paper 4 (Ethics in Public Administration).
- Context: Lokpal’s decision to cancel a luxury car tender (7 BMWs) after public outcry.
- Key Points:
- Austerity in Governance: Public institutions must avoid “conspicuous consumption” of taxpayer money.
- Probity in Public Life: The Lokpal, being an anti-corruption body, has a higher moral burden to show “symbolic integrity.”
- UPSC Relevance: Perfect case study for “Accountability” and “Ethical Use of Public Funds.”
- Detailed Analysis:
- The Moral Compass: This event illustrates that “Legal” actions (as buying cars was legally allowed) are not always “Ethical” if they conflict with the institution’s core values.
- Public Scrutiny: It shows how proactive media and citizen awareness can act as a check on administrative decisions.
4. Ukraine-Russia Conflict: The Drone Warfare Shift
- Syllabus: GS Paper 2 (International Relations) & GS Paper 3 (Security Challenges).
- Context: A massive Ukrainian drone strike in Russia-held Kherson causing significant casualties (24 deaths) and highlighting a strategic shift in modern warfare.
- Key Points:
- Asymmetric Warfare: Utilization of low-cost, commercially available drones to take down expensive military assets.
- Technological Escalation: The shift from traditional artillery to First-Person View (FPV) drones and AI-integrated autonomous systems.
- Global Economic Ripple: Prolonged conflict continues to disrupt the Black Sea grain route and global oil supply.
- UPSC Relevance: Critical for understanding “Changing Nature of Warfare” and “India’s Strategic Autonomy” amidst global polarization.
- Detailed Analysis:
- The Cost-Benefit Ratio: The editorial highlights how $500 drones are being used to destroy multi-million dollar tanks. This is a lesson for India’s own modernization through the ‘iDEX’ and ‘Make in India’ in defense.
- Electronic Warfare (EW): The conflict has become a race between drone innovation and signal-jamming technology. For UPSC, this links to the importance of “Cyber-Physical Systems.”
- Implications for India: India’s defense posture, especially along the LAC and LOC, is increasingly focusing on “Drone Swarms” and “Anti-Drone Systems” as a result of lessons learned from this conflict.
5. India’s Internal Security: The Kashmir Perspective
- Syllabus: GS Paper 3 (Internal Security; Linkages between Development and Spread of Extremism).
- Context: Record-breaking tourist influx in Pahalgam and Gulmarg during New Year, serving as a barometer for regional stability.
- Key Points:
- Economic Normalcy: Tourism contributes to nearly 7% of J&K’s GDP; 100% hotel occupancy signifies a “Peace Dividend.”
- Soft Power vs. Hard Security: The transition from a “security-heavy” approach to “development-led” integration.
- Challenges: Managing security for large crowds while maintaining a low-profile tactical presence.
- UPSC Relevance: Essential for questions on “Internal Security Management” and the “Role of Development in counter-insurgency.”
- Detailed Analysis:
- The Tourism Turnaround: The article reports that Gulmarg and Pahalgam have become symbols of the “New Kashmir” narrative. Sustained tourism helps in de-radicalization by providing direct employment to the youth.
- The Security Grid: Despite the celebratory atmosphere, the “Security Grid” remains alert to prevent “soft target” attacks. This balance is key to the government’s “Zero Terror” policy.
- Infrastructure Push: The completion of all-weather tunnels and improved road connectivity has facilitated this winter tourism boom, showing the link between “Physical Infrastructure” and “Psychological Integration.”
The Hindu Analysis
January 02, 2026
Urban Crisis
GS-1 & GS-3
🏙️ Housing Unaffordability
House Price-to-Income ratio has crossed 10.0 in Tier-1 cities, leading to Ghettoization. Working classes are pushed to the fringes, viewing housing as a Speculative Asset rather than a basic necessity.
Vulnerable Sections
GS-2 & Ethics
🩺 Transgender Healthcare
Systemic exclusion due to Clinical Insensitivity and lack of peer-reviewed SOPs. Key fix: Establish district-level Trans-Specific Clinics and overhaul the MBBS curriculum.
Public Probity
GS-2 & GS-4
⚖️ Ethics in Expenditure
Lokpal’s luxury car tender cancellation highlights that Legal actions must also be Ethical. Institutional values like austerity must override purely legal permissions.
Tech Warfare
GS-2 & GS-3
🚁 Asymmetric Drone Warfare
Cheap $500 drones destroying multi-million dollar assets is a paradigm shift. India’s counter: Scaling Drone Swarms and Anti-Drone systems via iDEX.
Regional Stability
GS-3
🏞️ J&K Peace Dividend
Full hotel occupancy in Gulmarg indicates a shift to Development-led integration. Focus is now on youth de-radicalization through economic normalcy.
MAINS FOCUS: Prepare short notes on “Austerity in Governance” and the “Asymmetry of Modern Drone Warfare” for GS-3 security.
Mapping:
Today’s study material highlights specific geographical locations that are crucial for your map-pointing practice:
1. North-Western India: The Kashmir Tourist Hubs
The surge in tourism is a vital indicator of the “Peace Dividend” in Jammu & Kashmir.
- Gulmarg (Baramulla District): Located at an altitude of approximately 2,650m, it is a premier winter sports destination. It lies in the Pir Panjal Range of the Lesser Himalayas.
- Pahalgam (Anantnag District): Situated at the confluence of the streams flowing from Sheshnag Lake and the Lidder River. It serves as the base camp for the annual Amarnath Yatra.
- The Pir Panjal Range: This is the largest range of the Lesser Himalayas. Mapping this range is crucial as it separates the Kashmir Valley from the hills of Jammu.
- Strategic Insight: Tourism provides direct employment, which acts as a major tool for de-radicalization and economic integration of the youth.
2. Eastern Europe: The Kherson Front
Kherson is a critical pivot point in the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict due to its geography.
- The Dnieper River: Kherson is situated on the banks of the Dnieper, which is the most important waterway in Ukraine. The river acts as a massive natural defensive barrier.
- Geopolitics: Kherson is the only regional capital Russia captured during the initial 2022 invasion. It serves as a gateway to the Black Sea and provides a “land bridge” to the Crimean Peninsula.
- Asymmetric Warfare: The recent massive drone strikes here highlight the shift toward First-Person View (FPV) drones, proving that high-cost artillery can be countered by low-cost technology.
3. Indian Urban Centers: The Housing Hubs
Urban planning and the “Housing for All” objective are central to India’s economic growth.
- Delhi-NCR Extent: The National Capital Region is a unique interstate functional region covering:
- Delhi: The core urban center.
- Haryana: Districts like Gurugram, Faridabad, and Sonipat.
- Uttar Pradesh: Districts like Noida, Ghaziabad, and Meerut.
- Rajasthan: Alwar and Bharatpur districts.
- Infrastructure Connectivity: The RRTS (Regional Rapid Transit System) and expanded Metro networks are designed to convert distant “dormitory towns” into viable residential hubs, theoretically lowering the House Price to Income ratio in city centers.
Mapping
J&K Stability
🏞️ Gulmarg & Pahalgam
Barometer for normalcy in Kashmir. Key features: Pir Panjal Range and the Lidder River confluence.
Mission: Trace the Lidder River’s course and mark the Anantnag district on the map.
Global Conflict
🌍 Kherson (Ukraine)
A strategic port city on the Dnieper River. It serves as a vital gateway to Crimea and the Black Sea region.
Mission: Study the Dnieper drainage system and locate Kherson’s distance from Crimea.
Urbanization
🏙️ National Capital Region
Trace the span across 4 States. Focus on the Delhi-Meerut RRTS corridor as a new driver of sub-regional economic growth.
Mission: Mark the major districts of NCR across Rajasthan, Haryana, and UP.